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Chemical Weathering Example
Carbonation is a form of chemical weathering. It occurs on Karst landscapes on exposed limestone rock. Rainwater mixes with CO² in the atmosphere, forming a weak carbonic acid, or acid rain. This reacts with the calcium carbonate in the limestone, dissolving it and forming clints and grikes, stalactites, stalagmites, and pillars. Ex. The Burren, Co. Clare.
Feature of coastal erosion
A cliff is a form of coastal erosion. Erosional processes such as hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, and solution cut out a notch in the rock on the coast. As the notch deepens, the overhanging rock collapses as its weight is no longer supported. This causes the coastline to retreat. The rock that falls down from the cliff forms a wave-cut platform below. Cliffs of Moher, Clare.
Name a feature of Coastal Deposition
Sandspits are a feature of coastal deposition. They are ridges of sand and shingle connected to land at one edge. Longshore drift carries material along the coast. As the waves travel across shallow beaches, they lose power and deposit material along the coast. These waves are called constructive waves. Over time this forms a sandspit. Tramore, Waterford.
Slow mass movement
Soil creep is a slow type of mass movement that occurs on wet, gentle slopes and is mainly affected by gravity. The weight of water pushes regolith down due to gravity. It is noticeable by the wavy texture and steps called terracettes, as well as bending trees and telephone lines, and soil gathering up near walls.
Name a feature of Mechanical weathering
Freeze-thaw action is a type of mechanical weathering. It occurs on high mountains.
By day: Water seeps through cracks in the rock.
By night: On colder nights, when the temperature drops, the water freezes and expands by 10%. This puts pressure on the rock.
Over time: After repeated freezing and thawing, the rock splits into jagged pieces of rock called scree. This rolls down the mountain and forms a scree slope. Croagh Patrick, Mayo.
Name a feature found underground in karst landscapes
Stalactites are a feature found in underground karst landscapes. Water containing calcium carbonate seeps through joints in the limestone. This water drips down from the roof of the cave, where it lingers and slowly evaporates, leaving behind a deposit of calcite. Over time, the calcite builds up, forming a stalactite, which hangs down from the roof of the cave. Ailwee Caves, Co. Clare.
Name a feature of River Erosion
A waterfall is a feature of river erosion found in the youthful stage. It occurs where hard rock overlies soft rock. Falling water and rock particles erode the soft rock below, forming a plunge pool. Erosional processes such as H (hydraulic action), A (abrasion), S (solution) erode the plunge pool, where water and rock particles swirl around, further eroding the soft rock and creating an overhang. The overhanging hard rock collapses, and the waterfall retreats, leaving behind a gorge. Powerscourt, Wicklow.
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River deposition
An oxbow lake is a feature of river deposition. They are horseshoe-shaped lakes found next to a river and occur when erosion and deposition create very pronounced meanders, found mainly in the old stage.
1. Erosional processes such as H, A, S narrow the neck of the meander.
2. Eventually, the river cuts through the neck of the meander.
3. Deposition then occurs, which leaves the oxbow lake separated from the river.
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Limestone formed
Limestone is a sedimentary rock found in the Burren, Co. Clare.
Weathering and erosion break down rock on land.
Sediments gather in rivers and lakes.
Layers of sediments like rock and dead sea life bones settle on the ocean floor.
Due to pressure, compaction and cementation occur, turning the layers of sediments into limestone.
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Name the 6 Irish time periods and their antiquities
Stone Age: ringforts, megalithic tombs, fulacht fia, crannógs, standing stones.
Celtic: hillforts.
Early Christian/Monastic: monasteries, ecclesiastical settlements.
Viking: towns ending in 'ford'.
Norman: castles.
Plantations: Georgian houses.
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What are the 5 geological factors that affect settlers
Shelter:
Trees, mountains, and valleys provide shelter and protection from the weather. Coastal areas are usually sheltered.
Altitude:
Little settlement occurs in upland areas as it is too windy, cold, and wet. Mass movement is common in high areas. Due to this, soil is not as fertile in low areas. It is also hard to get building materials to upland areas.
Gradient:
It is difficult to build on slopes. It is difficult for agriculture and to operate machinery. Low-lying flat land in valleys has more fertile soil.
Aspect:
This refers to the direction in which a slope is facing. South-facing slopes are better for agriculture as they get more sunlight.
Rivers and Coastal areas:
They provide food, travel, and water. Fertile soil is found in these areas.
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Human factors that attracted settlers
Defence:
Castles provided defence and protection.
Ecclesiastical:
Ecclesiastical buildings served religious functions for towns.
Bridging Points:
People settled at places where bridges could be created to join the other side. These bridges became trade routes. Eventually, the two sides joined to create one town.
Nodal Points:
Places where two or more routes (roads, railways, rivers) met. They became popular trading areas.
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3 Different types of settlement
Linear Settlement:
Lines of houses along a road allow easy access to the nearest urban area.
Nucleated Settlement:
Houses that are clustered together around a central point, also known as clustered settlements. Formed around nodal points, bridging points, and near water.
Dispersed Settlement:
Houses that are randomly scattered and spread out, usually as a result of farmland, found in low population areas.
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How Volcanoes are formed
Volcanoes may be formed at destructive plate boundaries. The heavier plate sinks down below the other plate into the mantle, where some of it melts and turns into magma. The magma has nowhere to go, so it rises up and forms a magma chamber. The magma penetrates the surface and spills out, turning into lava. The lava then cools into rock. This repeats and forms a cone-shaped volcano. Magma from the magma chamber comes up through a vent, where it travels up a volcanic tube. It then exits out the crater at the top, spilling out as lava flow. Ash and debris are released, and pressure may build up creating eruptions.
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How fold mountains are formed
Fold mountains are formed at destructive plate boundaries. The heavier oceanic plate sinks down below the other plate into the mantle. The other plate has nowhere to go, so it crumples or buckles up, forming fold mountains.
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3 reasons for overfishing
EU Membership:
Being in the EU allows countries to fish in the seas of other EU members. Half of the fish taken from Irish waters are foreign.
Modern Technology:
Echo and sonar equipment are used to find and catch fish. Large cranes can carry more fish. Trawlers have refrigerators on board, allowing them to stay at sea longer, catching more fish.
Increased Demand:
As the population grows over time, so does the demand for fish, meaning more fish are caught.
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Measures for Overfishing
Quotas:
The EU has quotas, or limits, on the amount of fish that EU members can catch.
Mesh Size:
The size of holes in the net mesh can be increased, allowing young fish to escape and reproduce.
Stiff Penalties:
The EU can enforce stiff penalties on overfishers.
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One large scale irrigation scheme
Aswan Dam, Egypt.
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2 Advantages of Aswan Dam
Fish:
A large amount of fish live in the Aswan Dam's lake, Lake Nasser. Fishermen can easily catch these fish.
Hydro-Electric Power:
The Aswan Dam generates a lot of hydro-electric power for the people who live nearby.
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2 Disadvantages of Aswan Dam
Loss of Silt:
Silt that would usually make its way to farmland gets trapped by the dam, causing the soil to be less fertile.
Evaporation:
The location of the Aswan Dam is very hot, meaning that much of Lake Nasser evaporates.
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What is irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to farmland, usually done in locations with shortages of rainfall.
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2 Fishing Ports (i) 2 Reasons for Overfishing (ii) 2 Ways to Prevent (iii)
(i) Dingle, Co. Kerry and Howth, Co. Dublin.
(ii) Modern Technology:
Sonar and radar technology on boats make it easier to locate and catch fish. Onboard refrigerators allow ships to stay at sea longer.
EU:
Ireland is a member of the EU. This means ships from other EU members can fish in Irish waters, meaning more fish are caught.
(iii) Increase Mesh Hole Size:
This allows young fish to escape and reproduce.
Quotas:
The EU has strict quotas or limits on the amount of fish that a member can catch.
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What is irrigation One large scale irrigation scheme 2 Adv. and Dis.
(i) Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to crops/farmland to help them grow, usually in areas with low rainfall.
(ii) Aswan Dam, Egypt.
(iii) Advantages:
Water for Farming:
Irrigation channels supply water from Lake Nasser to water crops.
Hydro-Electric Power and Flooding:
Lake Nasser provides hydro-electric power to people and industry.
Lake Nasser also controls flooding, preventing death and destruction.
Overall increase in quality of life and livelihood.
Disadvantages:
Salination:
As water evaporates, salt is brought to the surface, which is detrimental to the soil and crops.
Silt is Trapped:
The dam traps silt behind it, causing farmland downstream to become less fertile.
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Why forests are important Deforestation Causes Deforestation Impacts Afforestation in Ireland
(i) Importance of Forests:
Oxygen:
Trees in forests absorb carbon and release oxygen. This is important for our survival and the Earth's climate.
Medicine:
Forests house a variety of plants used for medicines.
Ecosystem:
Rainforests are home to many animals and species, housing more than any terrestrial ecosystem.
(ii) Causes of Deforestation:
Wood:
Trees are cut down for their wood, used for fuel, building, etc.
Agriculture:
Trees are cut down to make way for growing crops.
Livestock:
Trees are cut down to make room for livestock.
(iii) Impacts of Deforestation:
Global Warming:
As trees are lost, CO² increases, thus increasing global warming as a greenhouse gas.
Loss of Diversity:
Forests are home to many animals and plants, which go extinct without their habitats, e.g. orangutans.
Loss of Medicines:
Medicines are lost. Undiscovered medicines may be lost as well.
(iv) Afforestation in Ireland:
The Department of Agriculture is responsible for afforestation in Ireland.
People can earn €500 per acre for growing trees.
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Types of Farm (5)
Dairy:
Farms cows to produce dairy products.
Horticulture:
Farms only vegetables, fruit, flowers.
Livestock:
Farms livestock like cows, pigs, etc.
Mixed Farm:
Farms animals, crops, and vegetables.
Arable:
Grows crops like maize and wheat.
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Name 2 inputs Describe 2 processes Name 2 outputs
(i) Inputs:
Machinery (e.g. tractors)
Workers (e.g. farmers)
(ii) Processes:
One process on a mixed farm is spreading fertilizer in spring. Fertilizer is nutrient-rich and helps crops grow.
Another process on a mixed farm is milking cows twice a day, morning and evening. This happens all year round.
(iii) Outputs:
Milk, which can be used to make dairy products like butter.
Vegetables, which are sold to supermarkets and restaurants to be used for cooking.
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2 examples of rocks quarried in Ireland 2 advantages to rock quarrying 2 arguments against rock quarrying
(i) Limestone and granite.
(ii) Advantages:
Jobs:
Jobs like machine drivers and engineers can boost the economy and lower unemployment.
Material:
Used for infrastructure and construction. Rock can be exported to other countries, e.g. limestone.
(iii) Arguments Against:
Noise Pollution:
Explosives and machinery create noise. This would annoy nearby residents and devalue their homes.
Damage to the Environment:
Habitats and ecosystems are destroyed. Quarrying is non-renewable and could be replaced with farming, which is renewable.
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Impacts of Quarrying economy, society, environmental
Economy:
Jobs, boosting the economy.
Raw materials used for construction and exportation.
Society:
Sports, as old quarries can be renovated into sporting areas.
Parks, as old quarries can be used as parks.
Environment:
Habitats are destroyed.
Noise, air, and visual pollution as explosives and machinery are used.
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Energy most associated with Saudi Arabia
Oil.
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Benefits of oil exploration in Saudi Arabia
Jobs:
Nomadic tribes abandoned the desert to work in the oil industry. Camels and tents were replaced by cars and houses.
Health:
Good medical care and hospitals grew. Life expectancy grew significantly.
Education:
Education grew, and many more people became literate.
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Describe the case study for gas in Ireland.
The Corrib Gas Fields is the planned extraction of natural gas offshore of Erris Head in Co. Mayo. It is located 80km away, in water depths of 355 metres. The project has gained backlash and opposition from locals.
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Arguments for (i) and against (ii) Corrib Gas Fields
(i) For:
Jobs:
Increase in employment, boosting the economy.
Energy:
Energy will be provided for homes and industry.
Saves Money:
Ireland would not need to pay for gas from other countries as 60% of the country's gas needs would be provided.
(ii) Against:
Danger:
A leak or explosion in pipelines is a massive hazard for nearby locals.
Marine Life:
The construction of the gas fields could destroy marine ecology.
Pollution:
Noise and pollution will increase.
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Impacts of Burning Fossil Fuels
Air Pollution:
Harmful gases like CO, SO², and PM (particulate matter) are released. This is very bad for health and contributes to chest infections and asthma.
Global Warming:
CO² is released, which is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, leading to melting icecaps, rising sea levels, and intensifying natural disasters.
Acid Rain:
When gases like CO² are released, they mix with water vapour in the atmosphere, forming a weak carbonic acid, or acid rain. This can kill fish, damage plants, and wash nutrients from soil.
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2 effects of Acid Rain (ii) 2 ways of reducing it (ii)
(i) Effects of Acid Rain:
Forests:
Acid rain washes nutrients from soil, slowing growth. It damages leaves on plants, preventing photosynthesis.
Agriculture:
Acid rain washes minerals like calcium, reducing soil fertility. Farmers have to buy fertilizer.
(ii) Reducing Acid Rain:
Renewable, Cleaner Energy:
When fossil fuels are burnt, they release harmful gases that form acid rain. Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, or hydroelectric do not release these gases.
Reduce Deforestation:
Trees absorb CO², a gas that forms acid rain.
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What's Desertification One Human Cause of Desertification 2 Ways to limit the spread of Desertification
(i) Desertification is the process of regular land turning into desert. It usually occurs in semi-arid regions next to deserts, such as the Sahel Region in Africa, next to the Sahara. It is caused by climate change, deforestation, population growth, and overgrazing.
(ii) Human Cause - Deforestation:
Cutting trees removes roots that keep soil together and removes shade trees provide.
(iii) Ways to Limit:
Afforestation:
Tree roots keep soil together and provide shade.
Renewable Energy:
Global warming contributes to desertification. Renewable energies like solar and wind do not produce CO², unlike fossil fuels. CO² is a greenhouse gas contributing to global warming.
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5 Types of Renewable Energy
Hydro-Electric:
Uses the movement of flowing water or dams to create electricity.
Wind:
Uses the movement of wind from wind turbines to create energy.
Geothermal:
Uses heat from the Earth's crust to create energy.
Biothermal:
Uses organic material like sewage or waste to create energy.
Solar:
Uses light and heat from the sun to create energy.
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Glacier Erosion Feature
Cirque (or corrie) is a feature of glacial erosion. It is an armchair-shaped hollow at the side of a mountain, formed by abrasion and plucking. It is the birthplace of glaciers.
Snow would collect in the hollow and compact into ice, forming a glacier.
As the glacier overflowed, it moved downslope, with plucking and abrasion deepening the hollow into a cirque.
The melted snow forms a tarn, a small lake in a cirque.
Ex. Sallygap, Wicklow.
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Glacier Deposition feature
One example of glacial deposition are moraines. They are ridges of unsorted sand, gravel, and debris deposited by glaciers.
Lateral Moraines are found at the edges of glaciers, where material from weathered mountain sides collects.
Medial Moraines are found in the middle of a glacier, formed when two smaller glaciers merge into one.
Ground Moraines are found at the base of the glacier, made out of material plucked from the valley floor.
Terminal Moraines are found in front of the glaciers, marking the end of the glacier's movement.
Ex. Glendalough, Wicklow.
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Benefits of glaciation
Cirques are used as reservoirs and for HEP generators, e.g. ESB Turlough Hill.
Meltwater streams cut gaps in mountains, used as routes, e.g. Bray-Arklow.
Glaciated valleys are tourist attractions, e.g. Glendalough, Wicklow.
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A Horizon B Horizon C Horizon Leaching
A Horizon:
The upper layer of topsoil, containing a high content of humus and organisms.
B Horizon:
The subsoil layer beneath the topsoil, containing less humus and more parent rock material.
C Horizon:
The layer of bedrock (parent rock) beneath Horizon B.
Leaching:
When heavy rainfall washes nutrients and humus from Horizon A to Horizon B, causing Horizon A to lose fertility and forming hardpan (an impermeable mineral crust) and waterlogging in Horizon B.
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Brown Soil
Formed in deciduous forests, where trees provide lots of plant litter to form humus.
Very fertile and dark brown in colour.
Rainfall is limited, meaning hardpan and leaching do not occur.
Found in drier lowlands.
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Causes of Desertification
Deforestation:
Lack of trees means lack of plant litter, thus less humus, meaning soil is infertile. Trees and vegetation provide integrity to the soil, preventing erosion and mass movement. They also protect soil from the sun, preventing dryness.
Intensive Farming:
Overcropping starves the soil of its nutrients, making it infertile. Overgrazing from farm animals removes vegetation cover, exposing soil to erosion.
Global Warming:
Global warming changes rain patterns, meaning many areas do not get enough rain. It also causes droughts and makes soil drier and easier to erode.
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Impacts of Desertification
Millions of animals die.
Famine and drought kill many and cause migration.
Land becomes unsuitable for farming.
Advancing sand swallows towns.
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Clouds
Stratus:
Flat sheets of cloud, grey, rainy weather.
Cumulus:
Appears like large, fluffy balls of cloud.
Cirrus:
Wispy clouds.
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Rain types
Convectional:
Warm, sun-heated air rises. As it gets higher, the air cools and condenses its moisture into rain.
Cyclonic:
A warm air mass rises above a cold air mass. As it gets higher, its moisture condenses into rain.
Relief:
Moist air from the sea is forced up mountains/hills. As it gets higher, its moisture condenses into rain. A rain shadow appears on the other side of the mountain where the air descends and picks up more moisture.
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How are they measured: temperature pressure humidity wind direction wind speed precipitation sunshine
Temperature:
Thermometer, in °C or °F, identified with isotherms.
Pressure:
Barometer/barograph in millibars (mb), identified with isobars.
Humidity:
Hygrometer in percentage.
Wind Direction:
Wind vane, in N, S, E, W.
Wind Speed:
Anemometer, in km/h, or using the Beaufort scale (1-12). Identified with isobars (when closer together, wind is strong, and vice versa).
Precipitation:
Rain gauge, in mm.
Sunshine:
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder, in hours per day or using isohels.
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Formation of a cyclone
Warm, moist air rises from the surface of the ocean, creating an area of low pressure. Cold air replaces the low-pressure area, but in turn also heats up, thus a cycle forms. This movement creates strong wind as the low-pressure system develops.
Warm air cools and condenses its moisture into clouds.
The Coriolis effect causes the cyclone to spin to the right (in the N. Hemisphere).
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Features of cyclone/depression Features of anticyclone
Cyclone/Depression:
Warm, ascending air, which cools and condenses into rain and clouds.
Low pressure.
Anti-clockwise.
Isobars close together.
Stormy, wet weather.
Anticyclone:
Cold descending air, meaning less clouds.
High pressure.
Clockwise.
Isobars spaced out.
Clear, dry weather.
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Factors of Climate
Latitude:
Closer to the equator = warmer, as the sun is closer and less spread out.
Distance from Sea:
The sea warms up slower than land in summer and cools down slower than land in winter. Coastal areas are more temperate.
Air Masses and Winds:
Polar/northerly winds carry cold air from the poles. Southerly winds carry warm air from the equator. Maritime westerly winds carry moist air from the sea, and continental easterly winds carry dry air from land.
Altitude:
The higher up = thinner atmosphere = colder air, more wind and precipitation, as well as snow.
Aspect:
South-facing slopes get more sun.
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Different Climates
Warm Climates:
Equatorial - on the equator
Savannah - 5 - 15° north
Hot Desert - 15 - 30° south
Equatorial has 1 season, temperatures up to 30° annually, and 2,500mm of rainfall.
Temperate Climates:
Cold temperate - 40°-60° latitude
Warm temperate - 30°-40° latitude
Cold temperate has 4 seasons, temperatures of 5-20°, and up to 2,000mm of rainfall.
Cold Climates:
Tundra, around the poles
Boreal, below the poles
Tundra has 2 seasons, -35° to 12°, 250mm of mostly snow.
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Factors of a factory's location
Raw Materials:
May be located nearby.
Markets:
Where products are sold, may be near.
Labour force:
Near places of high population or universities for a qualified workforce.
Transport:
By water via ports and ships, by air via airports, by land via roads and railways.
Services:
Internet, electricity, banking, water, sewage are more common in urban areas.
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Factory Case Study
Aughinish Alumina Factory produces alumina, a white powder used in aluminum production, by extracting it from bauxite ore. It is then exported to aluminum factories in Scandinavia and the UK.
Inputs: Bauxite, Electricity, Labour, Caustic soda.
Processes: Crushing bauxite, mixing it with caustic soda, and heating it.
Output: Profit, alumina, mud waste.
Reasons for location:
Transport: Its location near a port allows ships from Guinea to import heavy bauxite ore. It's near the N69, linking it to Limerick and airports.
Labour: Nearby towns like Foynes provide it with 450 workers.
Market: Ireland is a member of the EU, meaning trade with European countries is without tariffs.
Aughinish Island can store lots of bauxite.
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4th type of industry
Multinational Corporations: Corporations that are located in many countries and have global branches.
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Incinerators pros and cons
Pros:
Provides jobs like mechanics and engineers.
Provides electricity for the nearby area.
Is a form of waste management and reduces waste in landfills.
Cons:
Fumes released could be toxic and carcinogenic.
Emissions contribute to global warming.
Environmentally friendly options like recycling may not be considered.
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A mine where rock is exploited
McMonagle Stone, Mountcharles, Co. Donegal, which extracts quartzite, sandstone, and granite.
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What influences tourism in Ireland
Natural Attractions:
Karst landscapes like the Burren, Co. Clare, which also has spectacles like the Ailwee Caves.
Mountains like the Wicklow Mountains serve as places for hiking.
Glacial and river erosional features like the valleys of Glendalough, Co. Wicklow and Powerscourt, Co. Dublin.
Coastlines and Beaches:
Cliffs and cliff walks, especially along Kerry and Clare.
The Cliffs of Moher in Clare.
The Wild Atlantic Way is a tourist route along the west coast.
Recreation and Facilities:
Ireland is home to prestigious golf courses.
Angling and fishing in the River Suir.
Leopardstown Racing and the Aviva stadium serve as sporting facilities.
Cities:
City breaks in Dublin, Limerick, Cork City.
They provide urban sightseeing, historical, and touristic sites.
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Negative and Positive Impacts of Tourism
Negative:
Pollution:
Increase in vehicles = more CO² emissions.
Litter and rubbish from tourists.
Destruction of Scenery:
New infrastructure and housing to facilitate tourism destroys natural scenery.
Flora and Fauna:
High number of tourists in natural areas can damage unique flora.
Positive:
Airports built to facilitate tourists, e.g. Knock.
Roads improved.
Railways more efficient.
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4 Influences on Population
War:
Increases death rates and decreases birth rates.
Strains healthcare, food, water, and sanitation.
Technology:
Irrigation schemes like Aswan Dam in Egypt.
New drugs and health technology.
Agricultural technology like tractors and fertilizer.
Healthcare:
Vaccines and antibiotics reduce death rates.
Better healthcare leads to lower infant mortality rates.
Contraception leads to lower birth rates.
Role of Women:
Women in developing countries are often uneducated in family planning.
They are culturally expected to have large families.
More children to combat infant mortality and to care for parents when older.
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Reasons for population pyramids
If birth rates are high, education can be prioritized and planned.
If the workforce is low, migration can be prioritized.
If the elderly population is increasing, healthcare can be prioritized.
Dependency Ratio:
Proportion of non-workers (elderly and youth) to workers.
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4 Push and 4 Pull factors of migration
Push Factors:
Economic: Less job opportunities.
Social: Worse facilities, services.
Political: War and political instability.
Environmental: Infertile soil, natural disasters.
Pull Factors:
Economic: More job opportunities.
Social: Better facilities, services.
Political: Peace and stability.
Environmental: Fertile soil and less risk of natural hazards.
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3 impacts of migration on the place they left the place they arrived in
Donor:
Brain drain: Educated population migrates, leaving lack of skilled workforce.
Clubs and organizations decline due to lack of young population.
Birth rates and marriage drop as young population migrates.
Host:
New skills added to the workforce.
Increased tax revenue.
More migrants may lead to a housing shortage.
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3 Factors affecting Globalisation
Transport:
Improved transport technology = increased globalisation.
Goods and trade increased as they can be imported and exported quickly.
People can travel worldwide in hours.
Trade:
Free trade and economic agreements like the EU lead to increased globalisation.
Trading partners form and become interdependent.
Communications:
Broadband, WiFi, radio, telephone allow global communication.
Workplaces can hold meetings remotely.
Media and news interconnect cultures worldwide.
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Impacts of globalisation
Food:
Importing diverse foods worldwide.
Leads to monoculture, reliance on certain crops.
Soil damage and overuse of fertilizers.
Environment:
Increased travel and transport = more CO² emissions.
More industry = more CO² emissions.
Culture:
Societies become more multicultural.
May lead to loss of individual culture.
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How are countries classified by their economic development
Developed:
Well-developed infrastructure, services, and transport.
High standard of living.
Most jobs in secondary and tertiary sector.
Mostly in the north.
In Transition:
Rapid industrialisation.
Focus on exports.
Standard of living and wages improving.
Developing:
Most jobs in primary sector.
Poor infrastructure and services.
Poverty, war, famine, droughts common.
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3 Causes for Economic Inequality
Colonialism:
Colonizers stripped lands of natural resources.
Countries remain poor and dependent.
Debt:
Countries owe money to foreign banks.
Money goes to paying loans instead of healthcare or education.
Corruption:
Leaders steal aid money for personal or military use.
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Types of aid
Emergency Aid:
After disasters.
Development Aid:
Long-term, for building infrastructure, education.
Tied Aid:
Aid with conditions (e.g. must buy certain goods from the donor).
Bilateral Aid:
One country directly to another.
Multilateral Aid:
Many countries or organizations (EU, UN).
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Pros and Cons of Aid
Pros:
Infrastructure, education, healthcare improve.
Emergency aid saves lives.
Relationships form.
NGOs teach locals skills.
Cons:
Corruption: Leaders may misuse funds.
Tied aid may benefit donor more.
Money spent on weapons, causing conflict.
Over-reliance on aid may hinder self-development.
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Difference between developed and developing in 3 aspects
Gender Equality:
Developed: Laws protect women.
Developing: Early marriage and domestic abuse more common.
Education:
Developed: Education free for all.
Developing: Many drop out due to costs, need to work.
Healthcare:
Developed: Vaccines, antibiotics common, good sanitation.
Developing: Rare vaccines, poor sanitation, diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria spread easily.
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Case Study: Mt. St. Helens
Mt. St. Helens, a dormant volcano in Cascade Range, Washington, USA. In 1980, geologists predicted its eruption after small earthquakes.
Environmental Impacts:
7,000 animals killed.
3km wide crater.
Melted ice and ash caused lahars.
Trees destroyed.
Social Impacts:
57 killed by toxic gases, including geologists and 'disaster tourists'.
Economic Impacts:
Geologists' camps destroyed.
$1.1 billion in property damage.
Tourism and lumber impacted.
Roads and railways blocked.
Aid:
Washington state government and local governments provided financial assistance.
Red Cross gave humanitarian aid.
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Case Study: Boxing Day Earthquakes
The 2003 Indian Ocean Earthquakes off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, caused by subduction of the Indian plate below the Burma plate, affecting Indonesia, SE Asia, India, Sri Lanka.
Environmental:
Coastal flooding, erosion.
Marine habitats damaged.
Saltwater intrusion.
Social:
230,000 killed.
Millions displaced.
Emotional trauma, healthcare strain.
Economy:
Billions in property damage.
Infrastructure destroyed.
Aid required.
Aid:
National governments, UN, WHO, Red Cross, bilateral and emergency aid provided.
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Case Study: Hurricane Ophelia
Hurricane Ophelia formed in the Mid-Atlantic near the Canary Islands and hit Ireland in October 2017.
Warm, moist air rose, creating low pressure. Air cooled, condensed, formed clouds. The Coriolis effect caused it to spin. It traveled to Ireland then Scotland where it died down.
Environment:
Coastal flooding, trees felled, farmland damaged.
Social:
3 killed.
Red weather warning, schools and businesses shut.
Houses damaged.
Economic:
Road closures, infrastructure damage.
Electricity out for 380,000+ houses.
~€70m in property damage.
Aid:
Irish Red Cross, Civil Defence, government agencies provided aid. HSE prepared for injuries.
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What characterizes deserts as ecosystems?
Deserts are arid (dry) ecosystems.
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How much rainfall do most deserts receive per year?
Most deserts receive less than 300 mm a year.
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Why does the temperature in the desert change drastically from day to night?
The air is so dry that heat escapes rapidly at night, causing significant temperature changes.
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