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What is the meaning of Renaissance?
Rebirth.
Who were Patrons in the Renaissance?
Wealthy families who supported the arts.
Name Florence’s wealthy family during the Renaissance.
The Medici Family.
Name the causes of the Renaissance.
Wealth from trade, as Italy was in the Mediterranean and received a lot of trade.
Competition between Italian city-states.
Patrons: wealthy people who hired artists.
Ruins of the Roman Empire.
The fall of Constantinople, which brought many immigrants and Greek and Roman manuscripts.
New ideas from trade: traders brought information such as Arabic numbers and mathematics.
Name the differences between Medieval and Renaissance paintings.
Medieval painted mainly religious images, while Renaissance included ancient mythology.
Medieval paintings were done on wet plaster with egg tempera paint.
Renaissance paintings were done on canvas with oil paint and used techniques like sfumato.
Medieval paintings were mostly 2D and flat, while Renaissance art used perspective, creating 3D depth.
Renaissance art also employed anatomy and realism, painting how light and shadow fell.
Who invented the Printing Press?
Johannes Gutenberg.
Explain the Feudal system.
Feudalism was a system of land ownership where rulers granted land (fiefs) to vassals in return for taxes and loyalty. Vassals swore an oath of fealty to their lord, promising to fight and pay taxes. This system structured society during the Middle Ages.
Describe a medieval manor.
A medieval manor was a village in the countryside owned by a lord or knight, where peasants worked. It typically had about 50 houses, a manor house for the lord, a church, a mill for grinding wheat, and a blacksmith’s forge. A bailiff collected taxes and managed the manor when the lord was away.
Peasants used the open-field system of farming, dividing land into strips for families, and practiced crop rotation, including leaving one field fallow. Serfs lived in small wattle-and-daub houses, men wore tunics, and women wore long dresses.
Describe life in a medieval town.
Medieval towns, often around 1,000 people, were built near rivers or coasts for trade. A charter from the king allowed a town to run its own affairs while paying taxes.
Features included:
- High protective walls and strong gates
- A main street leading to a market square
- Narrow side streets with houses and workshops
- A church near the center
- A fair green outside the walls for annual fairs
Houses were mostly wooden; important buildings were stone. Upper floors jutted out over streets. Craftsmen worked below and lived above. Fire was a risk, so curfews required fires to be extinguished at sundown.
Who invented the study of anatomy during the Renaissance?
Andreas Vesalius.
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Give the effects of the Printing Press.
More people learned to read and write.
Printed books were cheaper, so more people bought them.
People read more and were introduced to new ideas, as well as reading for entertainment.
The Church’s control over learning and ideas declined.
Use of Latin declined, and people wrote in their native languages.
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What were the differences in Medicine during the Renaissance?
Renaissance medicine was based on anatomy, allowing more accurate treatments compared to Medieval times.
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What is Humanism?
The idea that humans should be at the center of everything.
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Define a Patron in the Renaissance context.
A wealthy person who hired artists to create art for them.
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What is a Fresco?
A painting done directly onto wet plaster.
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What is Sfumato?
A painting technique that blurs edges, creating a smoky effect.
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What is Perspective in art?
A technique to create depth and distance in a painting, making it appear three-dimensional.
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What is Anatomy in the Renaissance?
The study of the structure of the human body.
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How did the Gutenberg Printing Press work?
Metal letters were arranged on a frame to form words, inked, and then pressed onto paper to create printed text.
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What is Vernacular?
A native language spoken by people in their own country.
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What is a Sonnet?
A 14-line rhyming poem popular during the Renaissance.
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What is Astronomy?
The study of planets, stars, and other celestial bodies.
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What is Heresy?
Having an opinion that went against the teachings of the Church.
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Describe a medieval castle.
Lords built castles for protection. Early castles were motte and bailey: a motte (artificial hill) with a keep on top and a bailey (enclosed area) below.
Later stone castles had:
- Curtain walls
- A keep with the lord’s apartments, chapel, and hall
- Dungeons below the keep
- Battlements where guards could patrol
- Turrets
- A bailey with stables, workshops, and kitchens
- A gatehouse with a drawbridge and portcullis
- A surrounding moat
Arrow slits were used for defense.
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Describe the daily life of a Lord and Lady and their feasts.
A Lord owned extensive lands, commanded knights and soldiers, maintained the estate, acted as a judge, and wore long tunics and trousers.
A Lady often married young to form alliances, bringing a dowry of money or land. She managed the household, bore children as heirs, lived in the solar (a warm, sunny room), supervised servants, wore full-length dresses, and taught children weaving and music.
Feasts were held in the great hall with large fireplaces and tapestries. Foods included beef, mutton, pork, deer, wild game, smoked or dried fish. Minstrels and jesters provided entertainment.
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Describe medieval soldiers and the training and life of a knight.
Medieval armies had foot soldiers, archers, and knights.
Knights were noble-born warriors who swore an oath of chivalry.
They trained in three stages:
Page (age 7): Learned basic skills, manners, swordsmanship, horse riding.
Squire (age 14): Learned to fight on horseback, served a lord in battle.
Knight (age 21): After a ceremony of dubbing, the knight swore to be brave, loyal, and protect the weak.
Knights participated in tournaments like jousting and fought for their lord.
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Describe the life and training of a craftsman.
Craftsmen (bakers, leatherworkers, blacksmiths, butchers, carpenters) made everyday goods. They belonged to guilds that set work standards, wages, and prices.
A boy became an apprentice at about age 12, lived with a craftsman, and worked for no pay. After about 7 years, he became a journeyman, earning wages and traveling for work. To become a master craftsman, he had to produce a ‘masterpiece’ for the guild’s approval. If accepted, he could open his own workshop and take on apprentices.
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Talk about Christianity in the Middle Ages.
Medieval Europe was almost entirely Catholic. The Catholic Church was very powerful, and Europe was called Christendom. Dioceses were run by bishops, parishes by priests. Bishops were wealthy and built cathedrals.
There were two main cathedral styles:
- Romanesque: smaller windows, lower ceilings, thicker pillars
- Gothic: larger windows, higher ceilings, more light and decorative elements
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Talk about medieval monasteries, monks, and friars.
Monasteries were religious communities, run by an abbot, where monks dedicated their lives to God. Monks followed strict rules, praying, fasting, and working. Monasteries offered education, helped the poor and sick, sheltered travelers, and created manuscripts.
Monastery buildings included:
- Refectory: dining area
- Dormitory: sleeping quarters
- Cloisters: covered walkways for prayer
- Chapter house: room for readings and meetings
- Almonry: where the almoner helped the poor
- Infirmary: where the sick were cared for
- Hostel: accommodation for guests
- Church: for prayer (run by a sacristan)
A boy joined as a novice at about age 15, learning Latin, Church teachings, and history. After some years, he became a monk, taking vows of chastity (no marriage), obedience (following abbot’s orders), and poverty (own no possessions). He shaved his head into a tonsure and wore a habit.
Friars were monks who lived among the people, traveling the countryside and helping the poor and sick.
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Describe medicine, the Black Death, and its lasting impact.
Medieval medicine was based on ancient Greek writings and the idea of four humours (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm). Treatments included bleeding, leeching, amputation, cupping, and herbal remedies.
Hygiene was poor, childbirth dangerous, and diseases common.
The Black Death (Bubonic Plague) killed a third of Europe’s population. Spread by fleas on rats, it caused swelling and discolored skin. People didn’t know its cause or cure, some thought it God’s punishment.
Impact:
- The feudal system weakened as labor shortages allowed peasants to negotiate better conditions.
- Doctors began questioning old research, leading to changes in medicine in the Renaissance.
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What problems did sailors face on long voyages in the 1400s?
They couldn’t navigate accurately and feared the unknown. Lack of fresh food and diseases were also issues.
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What were the reasons to explore during the Age of Exploration?
Influence of the Renaissance and renewed interest in geography (Ptolemy’s works).
Curiosity sparked by Marco Polo’s tales of wealth and wonders.
Desire for new trade routes to access silks and spices for profit.
The fall of Constantinople blocked old trade routes.
Desire for empire: expand territory and weaken Italian trade monopolies.
Spread Christianity: defeat Muslims and convert new peoples.
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What information did portolan charts give to sailors?
Portolan charts mapped harbors and coastlines and provided information on currents, tides, and depths.
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Describe caravels.
Caravels were ships large and sturdy enough for long voyages, sailing in all winds.
Features included:
- Triangular lateen sails for easier maneuvering
- Carvel-built hulls (planks fitted edge to edge) making them lighter and cheaper
- Rudders for steering
- Castles at the back as crew quarters and defensive positions
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Describe life onboard a ship during the Age of Exploration.
Discipline was harsh, with poor sailors and wealthy officers causing tension. Mutiny was punished severely.
Food: Salted, dried food, and ship’s biscuit (hard bread). Lack of fresh food caused scurvy.
Disease: Scurvy, typhoid, and other illnesses were common due to poor diet and lack of fresh water.
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Why were the earliest voyages done by Portugal?
Portugal’s location at Europe’s edge, close to Africa, allowed easier access to new trade routes and potential wealth to protect itself from neighbors.
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What did Prince Henry do to support Portugal?
Prince Henry established a school of navigation at Sagres, bringing together cartographers, sailors, and navigators.
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What voyages did Bartholomew Dias undertake?
Dias sailed around the southern tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope).
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What did Vasco da Gama undertake?
Vasco da Gama continued along the eastern African coast, reaching Calicut, India, and opening a direct sea route to Asia.
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What were the results of Portuguese exploration?
Portugal became wealthy from trade.
They established an empire in Africa and Asia.
Gained control of the spice trade, defeating Arab and Muslim rulers.
Spice imports into Europe increased.
Inspired other European rulers to fund their own voyages.
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Describe the life of Christopher Columbus.
Early Life: Born in Genoa, Italy in 1451, Columbus sailed on merchant ships and was shipwrecked off Portugal. He settled near Sagres.
Beliefs: Columbus believed the Earth was round and Asia could be reached by sailing west. He studied Marco Polo and Ptolemy and relied on Toscanelli’s maps, underestimating the Earth’s size.
Preparation: After being refused by other countries, Spain financed him, providing two caravels (Nina, Pinta) and a nao (Santa Maria) and a crew of 80 from Palos.
The Voyage: In 1492, they left Palos, stopped at the Canary Islands, and sailed west. The crew feared running out of food, so Columbus kept a fake logbook. After 69 days, they reached land (modern-day Cuba). Columbus thought he had reached India, calling the natives ‘Indians’.
Later Life: Columbus explored the Caribbean, returned to Spain with native slaves, fruits, gold, and was made governor of these territories. He mistreated natives, leading to complaints and removal from governorship. Eventually, it became clear he found a new continent, not Asia. Columbus died in 1506.
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Who were the conquistadores?
Spanish ‘conquerors’: men who crossed the sea seeking wealth, adventure, and territory.
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What is a colonisation?
When a country takes over another territory, settling its own people there to control it.
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Describe the impact of colonisation on South America during the Age of Exploration.
Native populations declined drastically due to introduced diseases like influenza, measles, and smallpox, with up to 90% mortality.
Cultural devastation occurred as native languages and religions were suppressed, replaced by Spanish or Portuguese.
Advanced civilizations (Inca, Aztec) collapsed.
Christianity spread through missionary efforts.
The slave trade expanded, bringing African slaves to labor in the colonies, forming the transatlantic slave trade.
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What was the impact of colonisation on Europe?
European empires expanded: Portugal in Brazil, England in North America, India, Africa, Oceania, France in Canada, Africa, and Asia.
Conflict arose between Spain and Portugal, Britain and Spain.
Gold and silver from the Americas enriched Spain, weakening Italy’s power.
The Columbian Exchange brought food and animals between Europe and the Americas: horses, cattle, sheep, farming techniques to America; potatoes, chilies, avocados, cocoa, coffee, tomatoes, tobacco to Europe.
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What was the Slavery Triangle?
A triangular trade route: Europe brought manufactured goods to Africa, took slaves to the Americas, then returned raw materials to Europe.
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What were the Quadrant and Astrolabe used for?
They were instruments to determine a ship’s latitude by using the stars and the Sun.
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What is a Compass?
An instrument used to identify the direction of north.
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What were the Log and Line used for?
An instrument to measure a ship’s speed in knots.
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What are the main causes of the Reformation?
The Influence of the Renaissance: More people could read and reinterpret the Bible. The invention of the printing press allowed the ideas of the Reformers to spread quickly.
The Wealth of the Church: The Church was the wealthiest organization in Europe. Monasteries and bishops owned a lot of land, which kings disliked. Everyone had to pay a tithe (1/10 of their income) to the local bishop, which caused resentment.
Abuses of the Church:
- Simony: selling and buying positions within the Church.
- Nepotism: appointing family members to Church positions without merit.
- Absenteeism: staying away from their parish or diocese for long periods of time.
- Pluralism: holding more than one Church position.
- Sale of Indulgences: The Church sold special prayers said to reduce time in purgatory.
Misbehavior of Priests: Many broke their vows of celibacy and some were poorly educated.
Power of Kings: Kings wanted to control their own kingdoms fully, but the Church was controlled from Rome, outside their authority.
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Explain Martin Luther’s life.
Martin Luther was born in Saxony, Germany, in 1483 to a wealthy family. He studied law before becoming an Augustinian monk and later a theology professor at the University of Wittenberg. Through his study of the Bible, he concluded that salvation came through faith alone (Justification by Faith Alone), not good works.
In 1517, John Tetzel sold indulgences in Wittenberg, claiming they guaranteed a place in heaven. Outraged, Luther wrote his 95 Theses (arguments) in Latin, possibly nailing them to a church door in Wittenberg. These were quickly translated into German, sparking public debate.
Luther’s ideas challenged the Pope’s authority. In 1520, Pope Leo X sent a papal bull threatening excommunication. Luther publicly burned it and was excommunicated in 1521. Emperor Charles V summoned him to the Diet of Worms, where Luther refused to recant. Charles V issued the Edict of Worms, making Luther an outlaw. Luther’s supporters, known as Protestants, protected him. Prince Frederick of Saxony staged a fake kidnapping to hide Luther in Wartburg Castle, where he translated the Bible into German.
Luther married an ex-nun, Catherine von Bora, had six children, and continued preaching until his death in 1546.
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Explain Luther’s beliefs and their impacts.
Luther’s Beliefs:
- The Bible is the only source of guidance for Christians; bishops are not needed.
- Each prince or king should control the Church in their territory.
- Mass and the Bible should be in the vernacular (local language).
- Justification by faith alone.
- Clergy can marry.
- Only two sacraments: Baptism and Communion.
- Consubstantiation: bread and wine exist side by side with the body and blood of Christ.
Impacts:
- Many princes rejected Emperor Charles V’s decision at Worms, leading to war. By 1555, each ruler could choose their territory’s religion (Peace of Augsburg).
- The Reformation spread, leading to religious division.
- The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation.
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What are the elements of the Counter-Reformation?
The Counter-Reformation included:
The Courts of Inquisition: Arrested, tried, and punished those who threatened Church teachings. Punishments included imprisonment, torture, burning at the stake (auto-da-fè), fines, confiscations, and wearing a sanbenito.
New Religious Orders: Ursuline nuns and Capuchin monks set up schools and hospitals. The Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, traveled worldwide as missionaries and set up schools for the sons of the nobility.
The Council of Trent: Senior bishops and cardinals met in Trento, Italy. They banned simony, pluralism, nepotism, absenteeism, and indulgence sales. Seminaries were established to train priests. Priests remained celibate. Rules on faith and sacraments were clarified, and the Catechism was created to answer questions simply.
The Index of Prohibited Books: Certain books were banned to prevent the spread of heretical ideas.
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What were the impacts of the Reformation on Europe?
Division and Persecution:
Europe became split between a Protestant north and a Catholic south by 1650. Minority religious groups faced persecution. Protestants were tried by the Inquisition in Catholic areas, and Catholics faced similar treatment in Protestant regions.
Wars:
Religious conflict led to wars, like the Thirty Years’ War in Germany, which killed up to a third of the population.
Power of Kings:
Kings seized Church properties and became richer. They gained more power, controlling religion within their kingdoms.
Education:
Protestants founded schools so everyone could read the Bible. Catholics also established schools to deepen understanding of the faith.
Art:
Protestants favored plain churches without distracting art. Catholics embraced elaborate art and the Baroque style to celebrate faith.
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How did the Reformation spread across Europe?
The Reformation spread rapidly. Much of northern Europe became Protestant.
- Henry VIII created the Church of England in 1534.
- John Calvin set up Presbyterianism in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1541, emphasizing predestination.
- Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, and the Netherlands adopted Protestantism.
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What are Protestants?
Initially, Protestants were supporters of reform within the Catholic Church. Later, they became members of the new churches that broke away from Rome.
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Describe the Flight of the Earls.
Ulster, controlled by Gaelic Irish clans like the O’Donnells of Donegal and O’Neills of Tyrone, resisted English rule. Queen Elizabeth I tried to control Ulster by granting Hugh O’Neill the title ‘Earl of Tyrone’, but attempts to enforce English law and customs led to the Nine Years’ War.
The Irish clans hoped for help from King Philip of Spain. Although initial successes like the Battle of the Yellow Ford occurred, Spanish aid was limited. The Irish were defeated at the Battle of Kinsale. The Treaty of Mellifont ended hostilities.
In 1607, the leaders of these clans, including Hugh O’Neill and Rory O’Donnell, left Ireland for Europe. This departure, known as the Flight of the Earls, removed the main Gaelic leaders, leaving Ulster open to English control.
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Describe the Ulster Plantations.
Under King James I, the Ulster Plantations took place. Large areas of Ulster were confiscated and divided into estates of about 2,000 acres.
These estates were granted to three groups:
- Undertakers: English/Scottish settlers who agreed to follow certain conditions.
- Servitors: British soldiers who served the Crown.
- Loyal Irish: Native Irish who stayed loyal during the Nine Years’ War.
Results:
- Many Protestant settlers arrived.
- It became the most loyal plantation.
- The Gaelic Irish were driven out of their lands.
- A new Protestant population emerged with new farming methods, houses, towns.
- Oliver Cromwell later confiscated more Catholic land, driving Catholics west.
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How was Irish identity affected by Plantations in Religion, Politics, and Culture?
Religion:
By 1700, Protestants owned 85% of Irish land. Catholics were pushed west by Cromwell, subject to Penal Laws, and their anger often led to violence.
Politics:
Protestants suppressed Catholic rights. Catholics couldn’t vote and faced severe discrimination, enforcing English dominance.
Culture:
Gaelic Irish culture and language declined as English laws, customs, and farming methods replaced them. Forests were cleared, new towns built, and crop farming replaced older practices.
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What is a revolution?
A revolution is a rapid and significant change in society, politics, economy, or technology.
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What were the causes of the American Revolution?
Age of Enlightenment: Challenged divine right and advocated limited government power and protected rights.
Trade Restrictions:
Britain forced American colonies to trade primarily with Britain (Navigation Acts), causing resentment.
Seven Years’ War:
Britain taxed the colonies to help pay for the war and its army, angering colonists.
No Taxation Without Representation:
The Stamp Act and Quartering Act taxed colonies without giving them a voice in Parliament. Groups like the Sons of Liberty protested against these unfair taxes.
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What were the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party?
Boston Massacre (1770):
After the Stamp Act repeal, Britain introduced the Townshend Acts, taxing imported goods. Tension rose, and a Boston mob confronted British soldiers who opened fire, killing five. This caused widespread anger.
Boston Tea Party (1773):
The Tea Act allowed the East India Company to sell tea without tax. In protest, the Sons of Liberty dumped British tea into Boston Harbor. Britain responded with the Intolerable Acts, placing Boston under military rule and closing the harbor.
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Explain the following: 1st Continental Congress, Battles of Lexington and Concord, 2nd Continental Congress.
1st Continental Congress:
Colonial representatives met in Philadelphia to oppose British taxes, boycott British goods, demand removal of British soldiers, and stockpile weapons.
Battles of Lexington and Concord:
British General Gage tried to seize colonial weapons at Concord. Paul Revere warned the Americans. At Lexington, rebels clashed with British soldiers. The British found no weapons at Concord and were attacked on their return.
2nd Continental Congress:
Influenced by Thomas Paine’s ‘Common Sense’, they appointed George Washington as commander of the Continental Army. On July 4th, they issued the Declaration of Independence.
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Explain the Life of George Washington.
Early Life:
Born in 1732 in Virginia to a wealthy family, served in the Seven Years’ War, and married Martha Washington, becoming very wealthy.
Commander of Continental Army:
Chosen by the 2nd Continental Congress due to his military experience and to gain Virginia’s support.
Disadvantages:
Fewer men, poorly equipped, amateur soldiers.
Advantages:
Local knowledge, British fighting far from home, increasing rebel support.
War of Independence:
Faced early defeats but captured Boston. Philadelphia fell to the British, causing doubt, but victory at Saratoga changed the tide. France, Spain, and the Netherlands joined the Americans.
At Valley Forge, Washington’s leadership inspired his men.
Eventually, British forces surrendered at Yorktown.
Later Life:
Washington helped draft the U.S. Constitution, became the first U.S. President, and died in 1799.
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What were the impacts of the American Revolution?
It created the USA, a large and influential country.
Inspired Other Revolutions:
France and Ireland were influenced by the American example to seek independence.
Societal Limitations:
Women remained unequal. Millions of black slaves and Native Americans faced oppression, displacement, and violence despite the new ideals of liberty.
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What are the causes of the 1798 Rebellion in Ireland?
Protestant Ascendancy:
A wealthy Anglican minority owning most land, controlling the Dublin Parliament.
Position of Catholics:
Catholics suffered under Penal Laws, no voting, heavy tithes, banned priests, forced poverty.
Position of Presbyterians:
Presbyterians (‘Dissenters’) were also excluded from power.
Influence of Other Revolutions:
The American and French revolutions inspired ideas of liberty and equality. Britain feared a French invasion via Ireland and granted slight reforms. Yet, conditions remained unjust.
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Describe Theobald Wolfe Tone’s life.
Early Life:
Born in Dublin in 1763 to an Anglican middle-class family, studied law at Trinity College, influenced by Enlightenment ideas.
United Irishmen:
He wrote ‘An Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland’, advocating equal rights. He joined meetings of reformers (mostly Presbyterians) in Belfast, founding the United Irishmen. They sought religious equality, removal of British influence, and universal male suffrage.
War on France:
Britain’s war with France and fear of revolution made them relax some Penal Laws. They also banned the United Irishmen. Tone fled to America.
Bantry Bay:
Tone secured French support. In December, a French fleet aimed to invade Ireland but was stopped by storms. Another attempt later failed at Lough Swilly. Tone was captured and asked for a soldier’s death but was refused. He attempted suicide and died days later.
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What was the government’s response to Bantry Bay?
General Lake imposed terror in Ulster: burning houses, torturing suspects, half-hangings, pitch-cappings.
Loyal militias and Yeomanry were formed. The Orange Order united Presbyterians and Anglicans against Catholics.
Spies infiltrated the United Irishmen, leading to arrests (including Lord Edward Fitzgerald). This prevented coordinated rebellion in Dublin.
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Give a summary of the 1798 Rebellion events.
Leinster:
Mail coach attacks signaled the rebellion. Spies ensured rebels were arrested. Attempts in Wicklow, Meath, Kildare, and Carlow were easily crushed.
Ulster:
Antrim: Henry Joy McCracken led 4,000 rebels (mostly Presbyterians), defeated at Antrim town.
Down: Henry Munroe led 7,000 rebels, won at Saintfield but lost at Ballynahinch.
Wexford:
Led by Fr. John Murphy, rebels took Oulart Hill, Wexford Town, and Enniscorthy. Defeated at New Ross, Arklow, and Vinegar Hill by General Lake. 200 Protestants were burned in Scullabogue barn.
Connacht:
1,000 French soldiers landed at Killala, Mayo. They won at Castlebar but were defeated later at Longford.
The rebellion was uncoordinated and crushed.
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What were the impacts of the 1798 Rebellion?
Sectarianism:
Increased religious hatred and division. Protestants claimed it was a Catholic plot.
Act of Union 1800:
Abolished the Dublin Parliament; Ireland ruled directly from London. Dublin’s importance declined, Belfast’s rose.
Irish Republicanism:
Theobald Wolfe Tone, considered the ‘father of Irish Republicanism’, inspired future movements like the Fenians and the Easter Rising.
Why it Failed:
Arrests of leaders, poor weaponry, late French support, and Tone’s arrest contributed to the failure.
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Describe Columbus’s life in detail.
Early Life:
Born in 1451 in Genoa, Italy, Columbus sailed merchant routes in the Mediterranean and Atlantic.
He was shipwrecked near Portugal and learned from the Sagres navigators.
Belief in a Round Earth:
Influenced by Marco Polo, Ptolemy, and Toscanelli’s maps, he miscalculated Earth’s size and believed Asia was much closer.
Sponsorship:
After rejections, Spain funded him. They gave him two caravels (Nina, Pinta) and a nao (Santa Maria), plus 80 men from Palos.
Voyage 1492:
He left Palos, stopped at the Canary Islands, then sailed west. Crew feared running out of food, so Columbus kept a fake logbook. After 69 days, they reached the Caribbean, which Columbus mistook for India.
Later Life:
He returned as a hero with gold, slaves, fruits, and was made governor. He mistreated natives, leading to complaints and his removal. He died in 1506 still believing he reached Asia.
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Describe the advances in British Agriculture.
Norfolk System:
Four-crop rotation (turnips, grass, oats, wheat) to replenish soil nutrients instead of leaving fields fallow.
Enclosure:
Combining scattered strips into large fenced farms, making farming more efficient.
Mechanical Reaper:
A horse-drawn device that cut crops in straight lines.
Selective Breeding:
Breeding the largest and best animals to produce bigger, healthier offspring.
Seed Drill:
A machine pulled by horses or oxen that planted seeds in neat rows.
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Describe farming in 1840s Ireland.
Ireland’s population doubled, large families and good farmland increased the need for potatoes.
Tenant Farmers:
Large farmers: rented more than 30 acres.
Small farmers: rented 5-30 acres.
Cottiers:
Rented one acre to farm potatoes, paid rent through labor. Lived in one-room cottages and depended heavily on the potato crop. Half the population were cottiers or their families.
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What are the causes of the Famine?
Reliance on Potato:
One acre fed a family for six months.
Cottiers and No Money:
They could not afford other foods.
Subdivision of Land:
As population grew, land was divided into smaller plots.
Population Growth:
Increased pressure on limited land.
Poverty:
Widespread poverty meant no fallback.
Potato Blight:
A fungus in damp weather destroyed potato crops.
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Describe the course of the Famine (1845-1850).
1845:
The blight appeared but stored potatoes helped mitigate hunger.
1846:
Two-thirds of the crop lost, no reserves left. Starvation and disease spread.
1847:
No blight, but no seed potatoes available, so the crop was small. People continued to die of hunger and disease.
1848-1850:
Starvation and disease worsened. Typhus and cholera spread as people flocked to towns.
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Describe eviction and coffin ships in the context of the Famine.
Eviction:
Tenant farmers and cottiers who couldn’t pay rent were forced out of their homes.
Coffin Ships:
Irish emigrants fled to Canada, Britain, Australia, and America on overcrowded, unsanitary ‘coffin ships’, where many died during the journey.
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Describe famine relief efforts: (i)(ii)(b).
Initially, British relief was slow, following laissez-faire policies. They misunderstood Ireland’s reliance on potatoes.
Eventually:
PM Robert Peel sent maize, feeding 1 million for a month, but it was expensive and unfamiliar.
Public Work Schemes:
People earned a small wage building roads and walls.
Workhouses:
People worked for food and shelter, but they were overcrowded and harsh.
Charity:
Quakers and others opened soup kitchens. International donations arrived from the Pope, Ottoman Sultan, Queen Victoria, and even the Choctaw Nation.
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What was the impact of the Famine?
Population Drop:
1 million died, 1 million emigrated. Population never fully recovered.
Change in Farming:
No more subdivision. More cattle farming.
Anti-British Feeling:
Many blamed Britain’s policies, fueling nationalism.
Decline of Gaelic:
Irish-speaking areas hit hardest.
English spread, easing emigration.
Ongoing Emigration:
Emigration continued for decades as families followed relatives abroad.
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What is the Irish Diaspora?
The dispersion of Irish people and their descendants worldwide.
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Describe Britain’s Industrial Revolution (impacts and 3 inventions).
Impacts:
Cottage industries were replaced by factories. Production became mechanized.
Inventions:
- James Watt’s Steam Engine: powered by coal-heated steam, increasing demand for coal.
- John Kay’s Flying Shuttle: doubled weaving speed, wider fabrics.
- Edmund Cartwright’s Power Loom: steam-powered loom producing more cloth faster.
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Describe the Irish Diaspora in Britain: conditions, work, impacts.
Many Irish emigrated to British cities like Liverpool and Glasgow.
They lived in slums, facing disease and poor sanitation.
They often found work as publicans, shopkeepers, dockers, and in construction.
They intermarried with the British population.
Over time, Irish ancestry became common in Britain.
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What is Parliamentary Tradition?
Using legal, peaceful methods in Parliament to achieve political goals, such as Irish independence.
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Explain: Nationalist, Constitutional Nationalist, Radical Nationalist.
Nationalist: Wants Irish independence.
Constitutional Nationalist: Seeks Home Rule or independence through peaceful, legal methods.
Radical Nationalist: Wants complete independence and is willing to use force.
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Explain Unionist, Republic, Home Rule.
Unionist: Wants Irelandto remain part of the UK.
Republic: A state governed by its citizens’ chosen representatives.
Home Rule: A Dublin Parliament controlling local affairs, while Westminster handles foreign affairs.
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Why did Unionists oppose Home Rule?
They feared discrimination against Protestants, economic damage to northern trade, and loss of free access to British markets.
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Define: Political Obstruction, Political Agitation.
Political Obstruction: Deliberately delaying legislation (e.g., filibustering).
Political Agitation: Encouraging people to form local groups to demand better treatment (e.g., withholding rent from landlords).
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Explain differences between the culture of north and south Ireland.
South: ~90% Catholic, few unionists, mostly poor tenant farmers after plantations and famine.
North: ~56% Protestant, strong unionism, industrialized economy, feared economic damage under Home Rule.
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What was Parnell’s role in the campaign for Home Rule?
Charles Stewart Parnell joined the Home Rule Party (HRP) as an MP.
He practiced parliamentary obstruction to delay British laws.
Supported the Land League to get fair treatment for tenant farmers.
This gained Catholic support.
The HRP became the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), which gained power in Parliament.
Parnell negotiated the Kilmainham Treaty for tenant rights.
The First Home Rule Bill (1886) was introduced by PM Gladstone with Parnell’s support, though it failed.
Parnell’s affair with Katharine O’Shea led to a split in the IPP, damaging the movement.
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Explain Parnell’s Early Life.
Born in 1846 in Wicklow to an Anglo-Irish Protestant landlord family.
Educated at Cambridge.
Elected as an MP in 1875 for the Home Rule Party.
Associated with the IRB’s obstruction tactics, raising his profile.
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Define Cultural Nationalism and Anglicisation.
Cultural Nationalism: Promoting national identity through language, sports, and arts.
Anglicisation: The spread of English culture, language, and customs, replacing native traditions.
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Outline the details of The Home Rule Crisis.
Third Home Rule Bill (1912):
After Parliament Act 1911, Lords could only delay laws for 2 years.
Unionists opposed Home Rule, signed the Solemn League and Covenant, formed UVF (Ulster Volunteer Force), and imported guns.
Nationalists formed IVF (Irish Volunteer Force), also importing guns.
The outbreak of WWI in 1914 led to the suspension of Home Rule.
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What was the effect of WWI on Home Rule?
Home Rule was suspended. The IVF split:
National Volunteers (majority) fought with Britain, hoping it would ensure Home Rule after the war.
Irish Volunteers (minority) stayed to ensure Home Rule.
Around 250,000 Irish fought for Britain due to economic and political reasons.
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What were the 4 main political parties in Ireland during the 1910s?
Irish Parliamentary Party: Wanted Home Rule, reunited under John Redmond.
Sinn Féin: Founded by Arthur Griffith, favored dual monarchy, industrial growth, and parliamentary abstention.
Irish Republican Brotherhood: Secret radical group wanting full independence by force.
Unionist Party: Led by Edward Carson, wanted to maintain the Act of Union and prevent Home Rule.
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What is a Paramilitary Force?
An unofficial military-style organization of civilian volunteers acting as soldiers.
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Summarize the GAA (Gaelic Athletic Association).
Founded in 1884 by Michael Cusack and others to revive Irish sports.
Maurice Davin was President, Parnell and others were patrons.
It banned English sports, played on Sundays, and created its own rules.
The IRB infiltrated it, causing splits. The GAA survived and linked sports with nationalism, providing a social outlet and recruiting ground for future political movements.
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How was the Easter Rising prepared?
The IRB formed a secret Military Council (including Pearse, Clarke, Mac Diarmada) to plan a rising during WWI.
They got funds from Irish Americans and planned to run guns from Germany (via Roger Casement).
Eoin MacNeill, leader of the IVF, agreed only if the British attacked first.
They forged the Castle Document to trick him into allowing the rising on Easter Sunday 1916.
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How did the plans fail before the Easter Rising?
The Aud carrying German guns was captured and sunk. Casement was arrested.
MacNeill discovered the Castle Document was forged and canceled IVF involvement.
This reduced rebel numbers and resources, but the Military Council decided to proceed on Easter Monday.
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How did the Rising go ahead?
About 1,500 rebels (Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army) seized key locations in Dublin, including the GPO, Four Courts, St. Stephen’s Green, and College of Surgeons.
Padraig Pearse read the Proclamation of the Irish Republic outside the GPO, establishing a provisional government.
They hoped their sacrifice would inspire others, despite certain defeat.
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Why did the Rising fail?
Lack of weapons, small number of fighters, confusion before the event, and British superiority in troops and arms.
Rebels were stationed in easily surrounded positions.
It was not a nationwide rebellion as intended.
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What was Britain’s response to the Rising?
Britain sent reinforcements from the Curragh and Britain. The gunboat Helga shelled the GPO.
By Friday, the rebels were surrounded. The rebels surrendered unconditionally.
Casualties were high, many civilians died, and Dublin’s center was heavily damaged.
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What were the consequences of the Easter Rising?
About 500 killed (mostly civilians), 2,500 injured, and extensive property damage.
3,000 arrested, many sent to Frongoch internment camp.
90 leaders sentenced to death, 15 executed. The executions turned public opinion in favor of the rebels.
Sinn Féin got credit for the Rising, boosting its popularity.
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Define centenary and commemoration. Why do we commemorate?
Centenary: A 100-year anniversary.
Commemoration: A ceremony to remember an event or person.
We commemorate to honor and remember those who shaped history, learning from past events.
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Reasons for the rise of Sinn Féin.
The British media called it the ‘Sinn Féin Rising,’ associating them with the rebellion.
Executions after the Rising made moderate Irish turn away from Home Rule and support Sinn Féin.
Eamon de Valera, a survivor, led Sinn Féin, gaining respect.
Sinn Féin demanded an Irish Republic and opposed conscription.
The German Plot arrests lacked evidence, increasing sympathy.
Sinn Féin started winning by-elections.
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Describe the formation of the First Dáil.
In the 1918 General Election, Sinn Féin won about 70% of the seats.
They refused to attend Westminster, calling themselves Teachtaí Dála and forming Dáil Éireann in Dublin in January 1919.
Unionists and IPP attended Westminster instead.
The Dáil declared independence and appointed ministers to run Irish affairs.
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How did Sinn Féin try to establish control and what was the British response?
Sinn Féin took control of local government, set up its own courts, and organized loans from Irish emigrants in the US.
The British declared the Dáil illegal and passed the Government of Ireland Act 1920, offering limited Home Rule.
But violence escalated with the IRA’s War of Independence.
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How did the War of Independence start?
On January 21, 1919, the same day the Dáil met, an RIC patrol was ambushed by the IRA at Soloheadbeg, Tipperary, killing two constables. This attack began the War of Independence.
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What were the IRA’s methods?
The IRA used guerrilla warfare: hit-and-run ambushes, raids on police stations.
Michael Collins, Director of Intelligence, established a spy network and the ‘Squad’ to kill British spies.
Local ‘flying columns’ carried out larger ambushes and provided coordination in rural areas.
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What were the British methods?
David Lloyd George formed the Black and Tans and the Auxiliaries, ex-soldiers enforcing British rule.
They were heavily armed, numerous, and used reprisals (attacking civilians) to retaliate against IRA actions.
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Name 3 key events of the War of Independence.
1. November 21, 1920: The Squad killed 13 British agents (Cairo Gang). In retaliation, Auxiliaries opened fire in Croke Park (Bloody Sunday), killing 12 civilians.
2. After Tom Barry’s West Cork Brigade ambushed Auxiliaries, the British burned down Cork City Centre.
3. The IRA burned down Dublin’s Custom House, but lost 80 men, a severe blow to the IRA’s capabilities.
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Explain the end of the War of Independence in Ireland.
The war cost Britain €20 million yearly, and the IRA was running out of arms and ammunition. The British were also receiving heavy criticism for the actions of the Black and Tans and the Auxiliaries. Éamon de Valera returned from America and signed a truce with Lloyd George in 1921, ending the war.
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Describe the negotiations for the Anglo-Irish Treaty.
After the War of Independence ended, negotiations began in London for a treaty regarding the state of Irish independence. The Irish delegation included figures like Arthur Griffith, Michael Collins, and Robert Barton, who were sent to negotiate. They wanted a fully independent republic without a partition between north and south.
The British delegation included Winston Churchill, Lloyd George, and Lord Birkenhead. They were very experienced negotiators, having previously participated in the Treaty of Versailles talks during WWI. The British wanted Ireland to remain within the British Empire and also considered loyalists in Ulster.
It became clear to the Irish delegation that a compromise had to be reached, especially as Lloyd George threatened another war if they failed to accept the terms. Éamon de Valera and Lloyd George would often meet to discuss the treaty. The Irish delegation knew they could not withstand another war and had no choice but to accept the terms they received.
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What were the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty?
Ireland would be a dominion, a self-governing territory within the British Empire.
It would have its own parliament, but the monarch would still be head of state.
The UK would keep Cóbh, Berehaven, and Lough Swilly as ports.
A governor-general would be chosen to represent the Crown in Ireland.
Ireland would be called the Irish Free State.
A boundary commission would be set up to determine a border between the north and south.
All TDs would swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown.
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Describe the pro and anti-Treaty sides of the Anglo-Irish Treaty.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty split the Dáil in half, as many disagreed with it.
The pro-Treaty side included people like Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins. They were the majority and argued that the Treaty was a stepping stone to full independence, was an improvement on Home Rule, and that Ireland could not endure another war with Britain.
The anti-Treaty side included people like Éamon de Valera and Cathal Brugha. They were the minority and argued that the Treaty was not what rebels had fought and died for, and that they did not want a partition in the north.
The pro-Treaty side held more seats than the anti-Treaty side, causing the Anglo-Irish Treaty to proceed. Upon hearing this, de Valera resigned as President, causing Arthur Griffith to take charge and set up a provisional government.
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How did the pro and anti-Treaty sides affect the Irish Civil War?
Just as the Treaty split Sinn Féin, it also split the IRA. Members of the IRA who supported the Treaty were called Regulars, and those who did not were called Irregulars.
The Irregulars, led by Rory O'Connor, occupied the Four Courts and other smaller buildings in protest. Michael Collins, now commander-in-chief of the Regulars, was reluctant to attack until the General Election of 1922.
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Describe the fighting during the Irish Civil War.
During the same week as the General Election of 1922, the Irregulars killed Unionist Henry Wilson and captured Graham O'Connor, forcing Collins to respond. With borrowed arms and ammunition from Britain, the Regulars attacked the Irregulars.
Within two days, the Irregulars in the Four Courts surrendered. Sixty-four people died, including Cathal Brugha. Liam Lynch replaced him as chief-of-staff. Within a week, the Irregulars were driven out of Dublin and forced to retreat to Munster. De Valera publicly condemned the government's actions and sided with the Irregulars.
South of the Limerick-Waterford line became known as the Munster Republic. The Irregulars, who had occupied many RIC barracks in Munster, continued to use guerrilla warfare against the Regulars. However, a recruitment campaign led the Regulars to heavily outnumber the Irregulars by around 60,000. The Regulars forced the Irregulars out of the RIC barracks, and they had to retreat into the countryside.
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Explain the end of the Irish Civil War.
On August 12th, the same day Cork fell to the Regulars, Arthur Griffith died. As the founder of Sinn Féin and one of the key negotiators, his death shocked many. Just ten days later, Michael Collins was assassinated in Béal na Bláth. His funeral was a major public event, with around 500,000 attending. Along with Griffith, he was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. Many people, including de Valera, believed the bloodshed had to end.
W.T. Cosgrave replaced Arthur Griffith as President. The fighting continued into 1923. The Free State government passed the Special Powers Act, allowing Regulars to try, arrest, and punish Irregulars. Around 12,000 Irregulars were arrested as a result. Furthermore, Liam Lynch, the chief of staff of the Irregulars, was killed by the Regulars. Éamon de Valera and Frank Aiken, the new chief-of-staff of the Irregulars, managed to convince members of the IRA to agree to a ceasefire, ending the Civil War on May 24th, 1923.
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What were the impacts of the Irish Civil War?
About 1,500 people were killed, and €38 million in property damage was caused. Dublin's center had to be rebuilt.
Divisions and tension grew between families and friends due to the pro- and anti-Treaty argument.
A parliament for the Irish Free State, called the Oireachtas, was formed, made up of the Dáil and the Seanad.
W.T. Cosgrave and the pro-Treaty side organized into Cumann na nGaedheal.
Sinn Féin was no longer the main party in Ireland, as Fine Gael (Cumann na nGaedheal) and Fianna Fáil (the anti-Treaty party) became the new primary parties.
The boundary commission and the boundary between North and South Ireland remained unchanged.
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Explain the formation of Northern Ireland.
While Nationalists in the south were striving for independence, Unionists in Ulster still desired to remain within the UK.
Under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, Northern Ireland and the Unionists had their own parliament in Belfast, and James Craig became the new Prime Minister.
In protest against the formation of Northern Ireland, Nationalists refused to attend the parliament. This led to Unionists having no opposition.
The separation of Northern Ireland from the Irish Free State became known as partition.
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Describe the state of sectarianism in Northern Ireland and explain what Gerrymandering is.
The Orange Order, an organization created to keep Ulster Loyalists British, as well as the Royal Ulster Constabulary, were mostly Protestant and associated with anti-Catholic sentiment. This led to increased sectarianism in Northern Ireland between Catholics and Protestants.
Gerrymandering is the rearrangement of voting districts to benefit one party. For example, the voting district borders were drawn up by Unionists to give them an advantage in elections. Derry, despite having a Catholic majority, was won by Unionists due to Gerrymandering.
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Explain Rome's history.
Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus in 753 BC.
It was first ruled by kings, but soon became a wealthy Republic.
It was then replaced by the Roman Empire, which conquered Italy and the majority of the Mediterranean area, much of North Africa, and stretched from England to Israel.
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Describe the key features of Roman towns.
Walls were used for defense.
Streets were laid out in a grid system. They were quite dirty, and waste was often thrown onto them.
There were forums, large town squares that were the centers of business, politics, and religion.
Gods were worshipped in temples.
Aqueducts brought water to the town.
Public baths (for bathing and meeting friends), theatres (for plays and music), and amphitheatres (for gladiatorial games) were popular forms of entertainment.
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Describe Roman patricians and plebeians.
Patricians:
- Wealthy, noble families who ruled Rome.
- They had huge estates, many slaves, and controlled Rome's government and army.
- Men wore togas, and women wore stolas.
- A patrician lived in a domus.
Plebeians:
- The poor majority of Rome who farmed, traded, and served in the military.
- A dole (free grain) was given to them.
- Men wore a tunic, and women wore plain stolas.
- A plebeian would live in insulae.
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Explain what domus and insulae were in Roman society.
Domus:
- Atrium: the central courtyard.
- Impluvium: a small pool to collect rainwater.
- Slave quarters for slaves.
- Lararium: a place to worship the family's deity.
- Peristylium: a walled garden.
- Walls were often decorated with mosaics, pictures made of small pieces of colored glass.
Insulae:
- Apartment blocks with no running water.
- The ground floor had workshops. The higher you went, the smaller the rooms.
- There was a danger of fire as the structure was wooden.
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Describe the role and conditions of slaves in Rome.
Slaves came from prisoners of war, children of slaves, sold children (from parents in debt), and prisoners captured by pirates.
Most patrician families owned slaves, and in Rome alone there were around 300,000.
Their work included public building projects, cooking, cleaning, farming, and mining.
Well-educated slaves were sometimes granted manumission, freedom after many years of service to their master.
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Explain the status of women and the nature of marriage in Rome.
By as early as age 14, girls were married to a chosen man.
The wedding ceremony, called conferratio, was held at the bride's house.
Women were expected to do all household tasks and manage slaves.
Divorce was legal.
Women were not allowed to vote at all.
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Describe the significance of public baths in Roman society.
Public baths were present in every town and were important places for exchanging news, meeting people, and conducting business.
They had three main rooms: the tepidarium (medium temperature), the caldarium (hot bath), and the frigidarium (cold bath).
An exercise yard outside was called the palaestra.
Separate areas and bathing times were designated for women and men.
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What were theatres and amphitheatres used for in ancient Rome?
Theatres:
- Large semi-circular buildings where plays, including tragedies and comedies, as well as music, were performed.
- All actors were men and wore masks.
Amphitheatres:
- Every major Roman city had an amphitheatre, such as the Colosseum in Rome.
- They held gladiatorial games; gladiators were slaves who fought for the crowd's entertainment and trained with specific weapons like nets and tridents.
- They rarely fought to the death as they were expensive to replace.
- Occasionally, fights between humans and exotic animals, as well as executions, were held.
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Describe education in ancient Rome.
Plebeian children received a basic education before joining the workforce.
Patrician children from ages 7-12 attended a ludus, where they learned reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Patrician girls from age 12 stayed home and learned domestic skills.
Patrician boys continued studying history, grammar, and geometry at a grammar school, and at age 16 learned public speaking at an oratory.
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Explain the legacy of Rome.
Architecture:
- Rome invented concrete and popularized the use of pillars, arches, and domes.
- Many ancient Roman buildings still stand today, and Roman innovation can be seen in modern architecture.
Language:
- Latin, the Roman language, influenced all Romance languages like French, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese.
- Latin also influenced English, even though it is a Germanic language.
Christianity:
- Rome eventually became Christian, leading to the Catholic Church and its rise to power.
- Christianity became the main religion of the continent.
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Describe the Roman military.
Soldiers enlisted at age 20 and served for over 25 years. Their reward was farmland somewhere in Roman territory.
Loyal soldiers were placed all over Rome to ensure control over territory.
Foot soldiers were called legionaries. They had equipment such as wooden shields, metal strip armor, a leather helmet, a javelin, a sword, and a dagger.
Soldiers could serve in the infantry (on foot), cavalry (on horseback), or artillery (using projectile weapons).
They were trained with heavier weapons to build strength.
When not at war, they worked on public works like roads and aqueducts.
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Explain religion in ancient Rome.
The ancient Romans were polytheists and believed in many different gods.
They offered prayers, offerings, and sacrifices.
Romans prayed to the gods at the lararium or in temples.
Funerals:
Romans believed that when a person died, they crossed the River Styx in the underworld. Coins were placed on the deceased's eyes so they could pay the ferryman's toll.
Musicians and mourners were hired for funerals by patricians, and most bodies were cremated.
Christianity:
After Christ's death, Christianity spread through Rome.
Christians were heavily persecuted.
However, Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity on his deathbed, granting it legal status.
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What were the causes of conflict (colonial, military, alliances) leading up to World War I?
Disagreements over colonies in Africa and Asia.
Military arms races, especially between Britain's and Germany's navies.
Austria's and Russia's competition for influence in the Balkans.
Systems of alliances, agreements made between states to aid each other during war, were established all over Europe.
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What were the consequences of World War I?
New States:
Woodrow Wilson's belief in the right to self-determination led to the formation of new states like Poland, Turkey, Finland, and Czechoslovakia.
Resentment:
Germans resented the treaty as they did not believe they were solely responsible for WWI and hated the reparations, loss of territory, and military limitations.
Italians did not receive all the land they were promised.
This led them to support radical political ideologies like Nazism and Fascism.
Economic Problems:
Reparations crippled Germany, causing mass unemployment and hurting most of Europe as well, since Germany was its largest economy.
Rise of Communism:
Russia's poor performance in WWI led to protests and riots.
This eventually led to Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks taking over in the October Revolution of 1917, making Russia the first communist state.
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Describe the course of World War I.
Start:
In 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria blamed Serbia and declared war.
Serbia's ally, Russia, declared war back. Germany, allied with Austria, declared war on Russia.
France, allied with Russia, declared war on Germany. When Germany invaded Belgium, Britain (its ally) declared war.
France, Britain, and Russia were called the Entente Powers, and Germany and Austria were the Central Powers.
Warfare:
Germany split its forces between the Eastern front (against Russia) and the Western front (against France).
Trenches were dug out, and the area between trenches was called no man's land.
Soldiers had to cross no man's land to reach enemy trenches, facing barbed wire, machine gun fire, snipers, and shelling.
Technology like airplanes, submarines, tanks, and chemical weapons (such as mustard gas) were invented, and mines and grenades were popularized.
Over 18 million people were killed from 1914 to 1918.
End:
Russia's involvement ended when the Bolsheviks overthrew the government.
The US joined the war on the side of the Entente Powers, and their one million troops forced Germany and its allies to surrender in 1918.
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Explain the peace settlements after World War I.
At the Paris Peace Conference, a treaty was organized mainly by three leaders:
- Woodrow Wilson (US), who believed in the right to self-determination and prioritized peace.
- Clemenceau (France), who prioritized reparations and neutralizing Germany as a threat.
- Lloyd George (UK), who prioritized expanding the British Empire at Germany's expense.
The main points of the treaty were decided at the Treaty of Versailles.
Germany would pay £6.6 billion in reparations.
Germany would lose all colonies and surrender some European territory.
Germany was banned from having an air force, tanks, and submarines. Its infantry and navy were reduced.
A DMZ in the Rhineland (between Germany and France) was introduced.
The League of Nations was set up.
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Explain the innovation of gunpowder, related technology, and its impacts.
In the 800s, Chinese alchemists accidentally discovered gunpowder, an explosive mix of saltpeter and sulfur. This innovation reached Europe by the 1300s.
Cannons were soon invented, firing heavy metal balls. This made medieval walls useless and allowed ships to be sunk from a distance. Handheld guns were also invented, making warfare more lethal and bloody.
Guns and cannons were primarily utilized by Europeans, allowing them to conquer civilizations like the Incas, who had less developed weaponry.
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Describe the innovations of the 1900s due to war, including technology and impacts.
Technology:
A decade after the Wright brothers invented single-engine monoplanes, they were used in WWI for bombing, attacking trenches, and reconnaissance.
Both Germany and the US spent time trying to invent a nuclear bomb. Germany canceled its program, but the US succeeded and bombed Japan twice.
Germany invented rockets to attack British cities in WWII.
Impacts:
Single-engine monoplanes evolved into passenger planes, making the world more connected than ever.
The rockets invented by Germany were the basis for the rockets used to go to space.
The nuclear reactions involved in the nuclear bomb could also be used to generate energy.
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Explain the policy of Surrender and Regrant and its role in succession.
Anglo-Irish and Gaelic Irish rulers would surrender their land to Henry VIII, who would then grant their land back along with an English title like 'lord' or 'earl.'
Land would be passed from father to son under this system.
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Briefly describe the Laois-Offaly Plantation and the Munster Plantation.
Laois-Offaly Plantation:
Organized by Queen Mary I, it was a failure as estates were too small, but it led to better planning for future plantations.
Munster Plantation:
Organized by Queen Elizabeth I, it was a failure as the land granted was too large, but it introduced new towns and trade, such as Killarney and coopering.
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Describe the Ulster Plantations, their organisation, planters, and results.
Organized by King James I in 1609, it covered most of Ulster.
Medium-sized estates of up to 2,000 acres were created.
Derry was reserved for London craft guilds.
Planters included:
- English or Scottish undertakers, who agreed to follow the Crown's instructions.
- Servitors, British soldiers who fought for the Crown.
- Loyal Irish, native Irish who stayed loyal during the Nine Years' War.
A large number of British planters arrived, Protestantism grew in Ulster, and it became the most successful and loyal plantation. Cromwell later reconquered Ireland and drove Catholics west, causing tensions and rebellions between the two groups. New towns, castles, and crop farming were introduced.
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Explain the effects of the Ulster Plantation.
A large number of settlers arrived in Ulster, bringing its total population to one million. It was the most loyal and successful plantation. These settlers were mostly Protestant and spoke English.
As the Protestant population grew, division, violence, and tensions between them and the Catholics also grew from 1609 onwards.
Avenging a massacre of Protestants during a rebellion, Oliver Cromwell reconquered Ireland, seizing Catholic land and giving it to Protestants. As Catholics were driven west, they ended up with very little land.
Urbanization occurred, and new towns were founded. English-style houses and castles were built, and crop farming replaced cattle farming.
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What were the effects of the Plantations in general?
Religious:
As Protestant settlers arrived in Ireland, tensions, division, and violence grew between them and the Catholic population.
By 1700, Protestants owned 85% of the land, becoming known as the Protestant Ascendancy.
Politics:
To ensure control, Protestants introduced the Penal Laws, which suppressed the status of Catholics in Ireland.
Catholic Mass was banned, and Catholics could not vote or sit in parliament.
Culture:
The Gaelic Irish culture and language declined as chieftains lost power.
Brehon law was replaced with English law, as well as English farming methods, language, urbanization, and forest clearing.
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Explain what the Pale was and its significance.
The Pale was the base of English power in Ireland, where English customs, language, law, methods, and culture were used. Its population was made up of the Old English.
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What were the causes of the 1798 Irish Rebellion?
Protestants:
The Protestant Ascendancy owned 80% of the land despite making up only 15% of the population.
Some Anglicans resented their limited power in their own parliament.
Catholics:
They made up 75% of the population but owned only 15% of the land.
Penal Laws kept them poor and powerless, preventing them from attending schools, voting, sitting in parliament, or attending Catholic Mass.
Groups like the Whiteboys attacked Protestant landlords.
Presbyterians:
Called Dissenters, they disagreed with the Church of Ireland and were thus not allowed to vote or sit in parliament.
Revolutions:
The ideas of liberty and equality from the American and French revolutions, where people rose against unfair rulers, inspired the Irish.
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What were the consequences of the 1798 Irish Rebellion?
Sectarianism:
News of atrocities, like the burning of Scullabogue barn, spread.
The Orange Order claimed the rebellion was a Catholic plot to take over Ireland and persecute Protestants.
This intensified hatred and conflict.
Act of Union:
The Act of Union 1800 was introduced, abolishing the Irish parliament.
Dublin became a poor backwater as trade and focus shifted to Belfast.
Republicanism:
Tone's idea of an independent Irish Republic inspired later groups and movements like the IRB and the Easter Rising.
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Who was Theobald Wolfe Tone, and what role did he play in Irish history?
Early Life:
Tone was born to a middle-class Anglican family in 1763 in Dublin.
He became interested in the Enlightenment and was inspired by French values of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
United Irishmen:
Tone wrote 'An Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland' advocating for Catholic rights.
He was invited to a meeting in Belfast by Presbyterians, leading to the foundation of the United Irishmen.
They published their ideas in 'The Northern Star' and wanted religious equality, removal of British influence, and all men to vote and sit in parliament.
France and Bantry Bay:
Britain declared war on France and abolished many Penal Laws, allowing Catholics to vote, out of fear of revolution.
William Jackson, a French spy linked to Tone, was captured, causing Britain to ban the United Irishmen.
France agreed to help Tone, sending a fleet to Bantry Bay in Cork. Terrible weather caused them to turn back.
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Describe the key events of the 1798 Rebellion in Ireland.
Dublin & Leinster:
In Dublin, it was signaled by disruption of mail coaches, but many rebels were arrested when they assembled, due to spies.
Nearby counties like Kildare, Carlow, Wicklow, and Meath had revolts but were largely uncoordinated, and rebels were defeated at the Hill of Tara and Carlow Town.
Ulster:
In Antrim, Henry Joy McCracken led 4,000 mostly Presbyterians but was defeated at Antrim Town.
In Down, Henry Monroe led 7,000 rebels, occupied Saintfield, but was defeated at Ballynahinch.
Wexford:
It saw the most action. Fr. John Murphy led rebels into battle, defeating troops at Oulart Hill and occupying Wexford Town and Enniscorthy.
They were then defeated at Arklow and New Ross, and finally at Vinegar Hill by General Lake.
200 Protestants were burned alive in Scullabogue barn, and 100 were massacred in Wexford Town.
Connacht:
The French arrived with 1,000 troops in Killala, County Mayo.
They overpowered troops in Castlebar but were defeated in Longford.
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Describe Daniel O'Connell's early life, his role in achieving Catholic Emancipation, and his efforts in the Repeal movement in Ireland.
Early Life:
Born in 1775 in Kerry to a wealthy Catholic family, he was sent to France for education. There, he witnessed the tragedy of the French Revolution and returned with a hatred for political violence.
Catholic Emancipation:
Emancipation would allow Catholics to sit in parliament without taking a parliamentary oath. He founded the Catholic Board in 1811 to campaign for emancipation, but it had limited impact.
He founded the Catholic Association in 1823, which also strove for tenant farmers' rights and the end of tithes that collected Catholic rent (1 penny a month). He ran for parliament in Clare and won easily, but refused his seat due to the parliamentary oath. Fearing another rebellion, the Duke of Wellington passed the Emancipation Act of 1829, granting emancipation. O'Connell took his seat and became known as the 'Liberator.'
Repeal:
He began to campaign for the end of tithes and had them lowered and paid to landlords instead of the Church of Ireland. He formed the Repeal Association, which campaigned for the repeal of the Act of Union 1800, and it collected 'Repeal Rent.' He held monster meetings—mass gatherings of hundreds of thousands of people—that concerned the government. One was banned at Clontarf, and O'Connell canceled it as he feared violence. Many wanted to go ahead with it, leading to the creation of the Young Irelanders.
Later Life:
O'Connell's health began to fail at the start of the famine, and he died in 1847. Hisefforts and methods supposedly inspired Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr., and Irish leaders like John Redmond and Parnell were also inspired by him.
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Explain Hitler's rise to power in Germany, focusing on the Weimar Republic, the formation of the Nazi Party, and the factors leading to his appointment as Chancellor.
Weimar Republic:
After WWI, Germany became a democracy known as the Weimar Republic. Many blamed it for the defeat in WWI since it signed the armistice and failed to restore Germany's greatness.
Nazi Party:
The National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) was formed in 1919. It aimed to speed up recovery by ignoring the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler, initially spying on them, grew impressed, joined, and later led the party.
In Munich, Hitler and the Nazis held a small revolt called the Beer Hall Putsch, which was put down quickly. Hitler was arrested, and while imprisoned he wrote 'Mein Kampf,' outlining the core beliefs of Nazism: viewing communism and Judaism as threats, emphasizing racial purity, ending the Treaty of Versailles, and seeking 'Lebensraum' (territory in Central Europe for ethnic Germans). He was inspired by Mussolini's fascist Italy, adopting salutes, the Brownshirts, and the swastika as the party emblem.
Rise:
Causes included the unpopularity of the Weimar government, the Great Depression (when stock markets crashed, causing the U.S. and others to withdraw loans from Germany), Hitler's leadership and promises to fix the economy and restore pride, and effective propaganda exploiting fear of communism, unemployment, and resentment toward the Treaty of Versailles.
Hitler was chosen as Chancellor. After a communist set fire to the Reichstag, Hitler used this to ban the Communist Party. During a general election, Brownshirts attacked opponents and intimidated voters, causing Nazi votes to soar. He then passed the Enabling Act, allowing him to rule by decree.
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Describe Hitler's economic policies and how they affected unemployment and industry in Nazi Germany.
Hitler promised to fix the economy and address mass unemployment, which stood at 6 million.
Trade unions and strikes were banned. Public work schemes were introduced, such as building motorways (Autobahnen) and the Olympic Stadium, reducing unemployment.
Rearmament took place, and ships, planes, submarines, arms, and ammunition were manufactured. The motor industry grew significantly, and the Volkswagen car was priced cheaply so ordinary Germans could afford it.
Taxes were reduced significantly, allowing steel, electronics, and motor companies like Siemens and Mercedes-Benz to grow.
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Explain how terror was used in Nazi Germany, including the roles of the Gestapo, the SS, and events like the Night of the Long Knives.
The Secret Police, known as the Gestapo, were led by Heinrich Himmler.
Hitler suspected that some members of the SA (Brownshirts) opposed him, so he used his bodyguards, the SS (also led by Himmler), to carry out a two-day purge known as the Night of the Long Knives, killing potential threats to his regime.
People considered undesirable or critical of the regime were sent to forced labor camps. Among the victims were Jews, journalists, Roma people, Communists, LGBT individuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Catholic priests.
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Describe the role of propaganda in Nazi Germany under Joseph Goebbels and its impact on media, culture, and public perception.
Joseph Goebbels was appointed Minister of Propaganda and controlled many aspects of media, art, and the press.
Jewish and anti-Nazi books were burned. He mass-produced cheap 'people's radios' so Hitler's speeches could be heard in every home.
Posters depicted Hitler as a godlike figure, and the greeting 'Heil Hitler' was commonly used. The Nazi salute became mandatory.
The Nuremberg Rallies were held annually in Nuremberg, each with a different theme, such as the Rally of Unity and Strength.
The 1936 Olympics were hosted by Germany to present it as a flourishing nation to the world.
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Explain the Nazi approach to education and youth, including the role of Hitler's Youth and changes to school curricula.
Nazi youth groups like the Hitler Youth were set up to indoctrinate children with Nazism.
Teachers were required to join the Nazi Party, and textbooks were rewritten to glorify Hitler, Germany, and 'Mein Kampf.'
Loyalty to the Führer was taught at every level of education, ensuring that young people grew up with Nazi ideals.
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Describe the role and status of women in Nazi Germany, including employment and family expectations.
Women were expected to stay at home and care for their families. Those who were doctors or teachers were fired.
Their roles were defined by the '3 Ks': Kinder (Children), Kirche (Church), and Küche (Kitchen).
Mothers with over eight children were awarded honors to keep the birth rate high.
Fashion centered around traditional peasant clothing and modesty, reflecting the regime's ideal of womanhood.
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Explain the development of anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, including the Nuremberg Laws and events like Kristallnacht.
The Nuremberg Laws meant Jews could not own property, be German citizens, vote, marry non-Jews, or hold certain jobs.
Nazis believed in the Aryan race—a supposed superior master race of Nordic and Germanic people. Jews had to wear the Star of David to mark themselves.
After a Jewish teenager killed a German official, 'the Night of Broken Glass' (Kristallnacht) occurred in 1938. Over two days, Jewish-owned buildings and synagogues were damaged, around a hundred Jews were killed, and thousands were sent to concentration camps.
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Describe the causes of the Holocaust, including Nazi anti-Jewish legislation, Kristallnacht, and the creation of ghettos.
The Nuremberg Laws severely restricted Jewish rights: Jews could not marry non-Jews, own property, be German citizens, vote, and had to wear the Star of David.
Kristallnacht, 'the Night of Broken Glass,' was a two-day riot during which around a hundred Jews were killed, thousands were imprisoned, and Jewish buildings and synagogues were damaged.
Ghettos were set up all over Nazi-controlled areas. They were enclosed with walls and barbed wire. Resources were scarce, and cramped, unsanitary conditions led to illness.
The Final Solution was developed—an official plan to exterminate Europe's Jewish population. Heinrich Himmler was in charge, and concentration camps were established across Nazi-occupied Europe, where Jews were deported.
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Explain the course of the Holocaust, including the role of concentration and extermination camps, and the eventual liberation by Allied forces.
Concentration Camps:
Originally, concentration camps were forced labor camps. The first was set up in Dachau, and many more were established in Germany, France, and Poland.
Eventually, extermination camps were created to systematically kill Jews, the most infamous being Auschwitz.
Life in Concentration Camps:
Jews from all over Nazi-occupied Europe were deported here. The phrase 'Work makes one free' was commonly displayed.
Those unfit for work were killed upon entry.
Children, men, and women were separated.
The goal was to strip victims of identity. Their heads were shaved, and numbers were tattooed on their forearms. They were herded into crowded barracks.
Many were worked to death, or died from disease, murder, or starvation.
Extermination camps often used mass shootings or poison gas (like carbon monoxide) in facilities disguised as bathhouses.
Liberation:
As the Allies advanced, the Nazis tried to accelerate extermination and then destroy evidence of their crimes.
The Soviets were the first to find the camps, discovering intact crematoriums and mass graves.
Allied soldiers from the US, Canada, France, and the UK also liberated camps.
News of these atrocities shocked the world.
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Discuss the impacts of the Holocaust, including the death toll, displacement, and its effect on Jewish identity.
Around 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, including 1 million in Auschwitz alone.
Millions of Roma, LGBTQ people, Communists, POWs, and disabled individuals were also murdered.
Jewish emigration increased as survivors moved to countries like the US, South Africa, and Canada.
This event deepened the sense of connection and identity among Jewish communities worldwide.
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Explain O'Neill as Prime Minister of Northern Ireland in the early 1960s.
Terence O'Neill became the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. He set out to 'build bridges' between the two communities. He used tax breaks and grants to encourage industry, and thousands of jobs were introduced.
However, the developments were focused in the Protestant East, leaving the Catholic West still poor.
O'Neill tried to improve relations with Catholics, visiting Catholic schools and meeting with the Republic's Taoiseach, Sean Lemass.
However, his symbolic gestures were not followed with concrete action.
Furthermore, Unionist opposition to O'Neill grew, as they believed his attempts to reconcile with Catholics would undermine Unionism.
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Explain the Civil Rights Movement in Northern Ireland.
Catholics became frustrated with the lack of progress in Northern Ireland.
The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was formed, with leaders like Gerry Fitt and John Hume.
It wanted to abolish Gerrymandering, the B-Specials, and discrimination in employment, as well as ensure one vote per person in local elections. Essentially, it wanted 'British Rights for British Citizens.'
Modeled after Martin Luther King Jr.'s Civil Rights Movement, it used peaceful means such as marches, boycotts, legal aid, and petitions.
The RUC banned marches due to the risk of violence and attacked a banned march that went ahead, causing further violent riots.
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How did violence escalate in Northern Ireland?
Battle of the Bogside:
In late 1969, a Unionist march led by the Apprentice Boys routed through the Catholic Bogside area of Derry.
Rioters drove the RUC out of Derry with Molotov cocktails and rocks, declaring it 'Free Derry.' The riots spread to Belfast, where Unionist rioters attacked Catholic property. British soldiers had to be deployed to end the riots.
Terrorist Groups:
Terrorism is the use of fear and violence in an attempt to change society for a social or ideological purpose.
The IRA saw the crisis as the perfect way to fight for a united Ireland and broke away from their Dublin-based command, forming the 'Provos.' They attacked the RUC and British Army, planted bombs, and killed British workers.
The UVF and UDA (Ulster Defence Association) were Loyalist groups willing to use violence to protect the Union. They attacked Catholics as reprisals for IRA attacks.
Internment:
The British lost Catholic support when they searched houses in Catholic areas.
Prime Minister Brian Faulkner introduced internment, the arrest of people without trial.
This was a disaster, as many innocents were arrested and only Catholics were targeted, despite Loyalist attacks.
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Explain the event known as 'Bloody Sunday' in Northern Ireland.
In early 1972, the NICRA organized a march in Derry against internment. It was banned, but 15,000 joined, and the British Army was sent.
When Catholic youths threw rocks at the British Army, they opened fire, killing 14 and injuring 13.
Protests occurred worldwide, and in Dublin the British Embassy was burned.
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Describe the Sunningdale Agreement and its impact on Northern Ireland.
Bloody Sunday showed that the Unionists were failing to deal with the crisis, so direct rule from London was introduced and the Stormont Parliament was suspended.
The Sunningdale Agreement was made to set up a power-sharing government where Unionists and Nationalists governed together. It was between the Unionist Party, SDLP (Nationalist), and the Alliance (a small Unionist party).
A Council of Ireland would promote cooperation and peace between Northern Ireland and the Republic.
The IRA continued its violence as the agreement did not bring about a united Ireland.
Conversely, Unionists believed it would undermine the Union and lead to a united Ireland.
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Describe the violence and strikes during the Troubles in Northern Ireland.
Violence:
There was constant violence on the streets of Northern Ireland.
The IRA used 'spectaculars,' attacks on the British mainland, to drive them out of Northern Ireland. The Birmingham Pub Bombings killed and injured many, leading to anti-Irish feeling in Britain.
The IRA caused 3,500 deaths during the Troubles, frequently attacking Northern Ireland.
Loyalist terrorists held reprisal attacks against Northern Irish Catholics, and the RUC and Army killed civilians while attempting to stop terrorism.
Half of the 3,500 deaths were civilians.
Strikes:
IRA prisoners led by Bobby Sands went on hunger strike, demanding political status as political prisoners rather than criminals.
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher refused to back down, and 9 prisoners died before the IRA called the strikes off.
International sympathy for the strikers was raised.
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Explain the events that led to the end of the Troubles in Northern Ireland.
Anglo-Irish Agreement:
Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald and British PM Margaret Thatcher signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement.
They would work together to increase security cooperation, and the Republic would have a say in dealing with Northern Ireland, able to propose ideas via an intergovernmental conference.
Downing Street Declaration:
From there, the Republic and Britain made progress in reducing the violence.
The Downing Street Declaration stated that only peaceful parties not associated with violence could contribute to all-party meetings on Northern Ireland.
Sinn Féin then made the IRA agree to a ceasefire, and the Loyalists followed with a ceasefire as well.
Good Friday Agreement:
The British and Irish governments, the Unionist Party, and the SDLP cooperated to form the Good Friday Agreement to end the Troubles.
A power-sharing government would be formed between parties, terrorist groups would be decommissioned, and cross-border bodies would increase cooperation between Northern Ireland and the Republic. Ireland would let go of its constitutional claim to Northern Ireland.
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Explain the Space Race between the superpowers during the Cold War.
Competition:
Both superpowers invested billions in an arms race for nuclear and military capabilities, and soon began 'the Space Race.'
German V-1 and V-2 rockets originally designed to attack British cities were further improved to carry larger payloads and fly farther and faster.
It was done because rockets developed to carry payloads could also carry nuclear bombs to each other. Technology developed would help in other military and civilian applications, and winning the Space Race would be a massive propaganda victory, proving one country's system better than the other.
Satellite:
In the late 1950s, the Sputnik satellite was launched into Earth's orbit by the Soviets. It was capable of sending a faint radio signal to them.
The Soviet victory shocked the US, and they soon launched the Explorer satellite into orbit as well.
First Man in Space:
The countries began their race to put the first man in space.
Yuri Gagarin was sent into space in 1961 by the Soviets as the first man in space.
The US then followed about a year later with John Glenn.
First Man on the Moon:
John F. Kennedy believed that the only way to win was to complete the final goal: put a man on the moon.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration started Apollo and Gemini missions to develop the technology needed.
In 1969, in the Apollo 11 mission, the Saturn V rocket carried Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil Armstrong to the moon.
Neil Armstrong uttered the phrase, 'One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.' It was broadcast live to half a billion people.
Impacts:
It was a major propaganda victory for the US.
Communication and satellite technology were improved upon, allowing for innovations and technological improvements for civilians and the military, like GPS.
The US later launched five more lunar missions, and other countries like the USSR, China, and recently India also participated in lunar exploration.
Improved space technology led to improved education and knowledge about celestial bodies and space, benefiting science and astronomy.
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Explain the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, including its causes, course, and consequences.
Causes:
Black people were treated as second-class citizens and were heavily discriminated against in the workplace, education, voting, housing, and public facilities. They did not have the same rights and privileges as white people.
In the 1950s, African Americans started the Civil Rights Movement, led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
It used peaceful methods, like peaceful marches and protests, boycotts, using media to highlight injustice, and using law to fight against discrimination.
Course:
The Montgomery Bus Boycotts started after Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white person on a bus.
250,000 people listened to MLK's famous 'I Have a Dream' speech, which called for equality.
In Selma, Alabama, Black people marched in demand for equality. They were attacked by the police.
Consequences:
The Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act were implemented, outlawing discrimination against Black people and allowing them to vote.
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Describe the timeline of European integration leading to the EU.
Benelux:
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg abolished customs duties between themselves, tripling trade.
OEEC:
Administered the Truman Plan across Western Europe.
Court of Europe:
Sought to further European unity and set common ideals and values.
NATO:
A military alliance of Western European states and the US, Canada against the USSR.
Schuman Plan:
A plan to merge the German and French steel and coal industries under a single authority, preventing war between them.
ECSC:
West Germany, France, Italy, and Benelux merged their steel and coal industries, boosting trade and industry.
EEC:
The European Economic Council (EEC) expanded upon the ECSC and sought a better economy, a higher standard of living, and greater unity amongst Europeans.
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Explain how Ireland joined the EU and the subsequent impacts on Ireland.
Applying:
Taoiseach Sean Lemass had tried to get Ireland to join the EU in the early 1960s along with the UK, but was blocked by France.
It applied a second time, but to no avail. Finally, it managed to join along with the UK in 1973.
Impacts:
Ireland has access to a market of over half a billion Europeans.
Irish citizens can freely work, travel, and live abroad in European Union states.
Around €750 million was given to Irish infrastructure.
Over €500 million was given to Irish farmers under the Common Agricultural Policy.
Ireland adopted the euro instead of the punt.
It fostered peace in Northern Ireland.
Equality and rights of women, workers, and consumers were protected by EU laws.
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Explain how the lives of women changed in the 1900s regarding voting rights and employment.
Voting:
In the early 20th century, women were unable to vote and were legally inferior to men.
Suffrage was the campaign for women's voting rights, and suffragettes were the campaigners.
The Irish Women's Franchise League led hunger strikes, attacks on property, and parades to advocate for voting equality.
The 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State allowed women to vote along with men at age 21.
Employment:
Many women were unemployed and instead served as housewives.
Poorer women worked as domestic servants or street traders.
They had lower wages than men.
In the 1930s, a marriage bar was set up, and women were fired from their jobs in public service after marriage. Many employers followed suit.
The Conditions of Employment Act lowered the number of women who worked.
However, in the 1970s, pressure from the EC and feminist movements led to the Employment Equality Act (banning discrimination on the basis of sex or marital status) and the Anti-Discrimination Act (banning higher wages for men) being introduced.
Position at the end of the Century:
By 2000, 40% of the workforce were women, but they were likely to have lower-paying jobs than men.
However, 55% of university students were women, and they were much more likely to pursue careers in medicine and science than their mothers.
In politics, the first female president, Mary Robinson of the Labour Party, was elected. She campaigned for the Travelling community and the LGBTQ+ community, and was the first president to meet the Queen.
In media, Olivia O' was a prominent RTÉ broadcaster.
In sports, Sonia O'Sullivan and Katie Taylor won medals for Ireland in championships and the Olympics.
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Explain the impact of World War I on Ireland.
WWI had serious impacts on Ireland.
Home Rule, the establishment of a parliament in Ireland to control local affairs, was scheduled to be implemented in 1914, but at the dawn of WWI, Britain postponed it.
The Irish Volunteers Force (IVF) was a paramilitary organisation that defended Home Rule and opposed British rule in Ireland. However, many had differing opinions on what to do during WWI, and the IVF split as a result into two sectors.
Nationalist Volunteers:
John Redmond believed that fighting alongside Britain in WWI would benefit Home Rule negotiations. 175,000 members of the IVF followed John Redmond and fought with Britain.
Irish Volunteers:
Led by Eoin MacNeill, 11,000 disagreed and instead wanted to stay home to protect Home Rule.
Around 250,000 Irish people fought in WWI against the Germans, and 30,000 to 50,000 died. While many joined due to political beliefs, many also joined as it was a way to earn money and support family back home.
Nationalist Volunteers joined the 16th (Irish) Division, in regiments such as the Irish Guards, Royal Dublin Fusiliers, and the Royal Munster Fusiliers. Unionists joined the 36th (Ulster) Division.
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of primary sources in historical research?
Advantages:
Firsthand Perspective: Provides direct insight into historical events from those who experienced them.
Authenticity: Original records from the time, ensuring a genuine representation of the past.
Disadvantages:
Potential Bias or Propaganda: Reflects individual perspectives, leading to potential bias or a narrow viewpoint.
Degradation: Over time, primary sources may degrade, impacting their reliability and preservation.
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What are the pros and cons of using secondary sources in historical research?
Advantages:
Analysis: Secondary sources offer a synthesized analysis and interpretation of primary data, providing a broader understanding.
Contextualization: They place events within a larger historical context, aiding in a more comprehensive grasp of the subject.
Disadvantages:
Potential Errors: Authors may introduce bias or errors in their interpretation, influencing the reliability of secondary sources.
Dependence on Primary Sources: The accuracy of secondary sources relies on the quality and objectivity of the primary sources they draw from.
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