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Weight vs Mass
Mass is amount of matter (kg, doesn't change). Weight is a force due to gravity (N, changes with gravity). W = Mass × Gravity.
Elastic objects
Objects that return to original shape after deforming.
Hooke's Law
Extension of a spring is directly proportional to force applied, until elastic limit.
What is an axis (Earth)
An imaginary line through Earth’s center; Earth's tilt (23.5°) causes seasons.
Living thing
Organism
7 Characteristics of Life
Reproduction, Respiration, Response, Excretion, Growth, Movement, Nutrition
Nutrition
How organisms get their food.
Respiration
Release of energy from food.
Excretion
Removal of waste products from the body.
Growth
Increase in size as cells divide.
Reproduction
Ability to produce new individuals (offspring).
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Response
The ability to react to changes in the environment.
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Diaphragm (in a microscope)
Controls amount of light passing through the specimen.
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Eyepiece lens
Lens you look through to see the magnified image.
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Stage (microscope)
Holds the slide/specimen in place.
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Coarse focus wheel
Brings the image into rough focus.
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Fine focus wheel
Brings the image into sharp focus.
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Objective lens
Magnifies the image of the specimen.
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4 Biomolecules everyone needs
Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins
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Sugar (carbohydrate)
Provides a fast supply of energy. Found in fruits, sweets.
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Starch (carbohydrate)
Provides slow-release energy. Found in potatoes, bread, rice.
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Fibre
Prevents constipation, aids digestion. Found in grains, cereals, vegetables.
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Proteins
Growth and repair of cells, form muscles, hair, enzymes. Found in meat, fish, pulses.
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Fats
Energy store, insulates and protects organs. Found in meat, dairy, chocolate.
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Vitamins
Healthy gums, teeth, joints, immune system. Found in fruits, vegetables, dairy.
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Starch Test
Iodine test: Orange to Black if starch is present.
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Glucose test
Benedict's solution + heat: Blue to Maroon if glucose is present.
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Protein Test
Biuret solution: Blue to Purple if protein is present.
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Fats test
Brown paper: Translucent spot if fat is present.
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Minerals (in diet)
Assist chemical reactions, form red blood cells (iron). Found in meat, fruits, vegetables, dairy.
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Water (in diet)
Transports materials, regulates temperature, removes waste.
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What is a Scalar?
A quantity described by magnitude only (e.g. distance, speed).
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What is a Vector?
A quantity described by magnitude and direction (e.g. velocity, force).
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Example of scalar and vector
Scalar: Speed, Time, Distance. Vector: Velocity, Displacement, Force.
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What is Displacement?
The shortest distance from start to end point, a vector quantity.
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Speed vs Velocity
Speed is how fast (scalar). Velocity is speed with direction (vector).
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Formula for velocity
Velocity = Displacement / Time
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Formula for speed
Speed = Distance / Time
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What is acceleration + formula
Rate of change of velocity. Acceleration = Change in Speed / Time.
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SI unit for acceleration
m/s²
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What is Force + SI unit
A push or pull that can change an object's shape, speed, or direction. Measured in Newtons (N).
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Two categories for Force
Contact (push, pull, friction) and Non-Contact (gravity, electrostatic, magnetic).
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What is Friction
A force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.
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Reduce friction methods
Lubrication (oil), ball bearings, reducing contact.
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Weight vs Mass
Mass is amount of matter (kg, doesn't change). Weight is a force due to gravity (N, changes with gravity). W = Mass × Gravity.
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Elastic objects
Objects that return to original shape after deforming.
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Hooke's Law
Extension of a spring is directly proportional to force applied, until elastic limit.
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What is an axis (Earth)
An imaginary line through Earth’s center; Earth's tilt (23.5°) causes seasons.
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Seasons caused by?
Earth’s tilt. When a hemisphere tilts toward the Sun, it experiences summer.
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Types of materials by light passage
Transparent (all light passes), Translucent (some light), Opaque (no light).
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Shadows
Formed when opaque objects block light traveling in straight lines.
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Solar vs Lunar eclipse
Solar: Moon between Sun & Earth. Lunar: Earth between Sun & Moon.
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Umbra and Penumbra
Umbra: darkest shadow region, total eclipse. Penumbra: partial shadow.
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Why lunar eclipse red
Earth’s atmosphere scatters blue light, leaving red light to reach Moon.
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Tides caused by Moon?
Moon’s gravity pulls oceans, creating bulges leading to 2 high & 2 low tides daily.
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Elements, Compounds, Mixtures
Element: 1 type of atom. Compound: 2+ elements chemically combined. Mixture: multiple substances physically combined.
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Purity test
Check boiling/melting point; pure substances have fixed points.
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Solute, Solvent, Solution
Solute dissolves in solvent, forming a solution. Insoluble substances don’t dissolve.
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Ways to separate mixtures
Decanting, Filtration, Evaporation, Distillation, Chromatography.
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Circulatory system function
Transports O2, nutrients, removes waste, regulates temperature.
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Main components of circulatory system
Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), blood (RBC, WBC, plasma, platelets).
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Arteries vs Veins
Arteries: thick walls, high pressure, no valves, oxygenated blood. Veins: thin walls, low pressure, valves, deoxygenated blood.
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Capillaries
1 cell thick vessels linking arteries & veins; exchange materials with cells.
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Label heart sides
Right side: Deoxygenated blood to lungs. Left side: Oxygenated blood to body.
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Steps of blood flow in heart
Vena Cava → RA → RV → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs → Pulmonary Vein → LA → LV → Aorta → Body.
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Nose function in breathing
Filters, warms, moistens air. Mucus & cilia trap particles.
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Path of air inhaled
Nose → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli (gas exchange).
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Gas exchange in alveoli
O2 diffuses into blood, CO2 & H2O diffuse into alveoli.
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Inhalation process
Diaphragm & intercostal muscles contract, volume up, pressure down, air in.
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Ecology terms
Population: same species group. Community: all populations. Ecosystem: community + environment.
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Abiotic factors
Non-living factors (temp, light, soil pH).
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Biotic factors
Living factors (competition, predation, symbiosis).
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Feeding relationships
Energy transfer via food chains/webs. Producers → Consumers.
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Adaptation & Niche
Adaptation: traits for survival. Niche: organism’s role in habitat.
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Quadrat use
Randomly place quadrat, identify & count plants, repeat for frequency.
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Pooter & Pitfall trap
Pooter: Suck insects into jar. Pitfall: Insects fall into buried container.
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Flower structure
Sepals, Petals, Stamen (Anther, Filament), Carpel (Stigma, Style, Ovary).
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Phototropism & Geotropism
Plant growth towards light & response to gravity.
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Asexual vs Sexual in plants
Asexual: one parent, identical. Sexual: two parents, gametes, genetic variation.
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Stomata function
Gas exchange in leaves (O2, CO2, H2O vapor).
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Xylem vs Phloem
Xylem: Water & minerals up. Phloem: Food up & down.
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Acids & Bases definition
Acid: +H ions, pH<7. Base: -OH ions, pH>7. Neutral: pH=7.
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Indicators
Litmus & Universal indicator show acidity/alkalinity.
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Types of space missions
Human, Flyby, Orbital, Robotic Landing.
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Hazards of space travel
No oxygen, radiation, muscle/bone loss, equipment failure.
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Light telescopes vs others
Reflector uses mirrors, Refractor uses lenses, Combo uses both.
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Fossil Fuels energy
Burned to heat water → steam → turbine → electricity.
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Nuclear Fission pros/cons
Pros: Efficient, no greenhouse gases. Cons: Radioactive waste, accidents.
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Fusion pros/cons
Pros: abundant fuel, no waste. Cons: no technology yet, expensive.
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Pollution example
Eutrophication from fertilizers causing algae blooms.
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Plant reproduction steps
Pollination → Fertilisation → Seed formation → Dispersal → Germination.
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Cutting & Grafting
Cutting: plant clone from part. Grafting: joining stems for better yields.
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Micropropagation benefit
Mass production, disease-free, any season, identical crops.
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Steps of a habitat study
Select habitat, map, qualitative/quantitative surveys, measure abiotic factors, observe interactions, final report.
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Titration purpose
To find how much acid neutralizes a base accurately.
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Describe Titration steps
Measure base with pipette, add indicator, fill burette with acid, add acid slowly until color changes, repeat & average.
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Food chain terms
Producer → Primary Consumer → Secondary → Tertiary → Apex Predator → Decomposer.
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Asexual reproduction in plants (runner)
Runner grows from parent, forms new plant at tip, identical to parent.
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Space Shuttle & ISS
Shuttle: reusable spacecraft. ISS: orbiting station for research.
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Ohm's Law
Voltage ∝ Current at constant temp. V=IR.
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Diodes
Allow current one-way, convert AC to DC.
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Static Electricity causes & uses
Friction causes charge buildup. Uses in cling film, dust removal.
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Preventing Rust
Painting, oiling, galvanizing with zinc.
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Effect of mutation: Cancer
Uncontrolled cell division forming tumors, treated by surgery, chemo, radiation.
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Male Reproductive System organs
Testes, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Prostate, Seminal Vesicles, Penis.
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Female Reproductive System organs
Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, Uterus, Cervix, Vagina.
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Pregnancy process
Fertilization → Implantation → Embryo → Foetus (40 weeks) → Placenta formation.
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Birth steps
Uterus contracts, cervix dilates, amniotic sac breaks, baby delivered, cord cut, placenta delivered.
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